
Class JUJli 
Book J 



COPMRIGHT DEPoifT. \ 











■ 


1 








:;;■• 


'Ji^^l 


^^^^H 








h: 




^^^^^^^1 








i 


^-^^H 


^^^^^^^1 




P^ 


3J^ 


^.S; 


1 


^1 


BySS^ 








•<yi ; .'miaB 


^^^^1 




- 


-!•"■' 




Jl 


^M 








-^ 


'X ■- 


^H 




















Hgr'' 


^^^^^^Kr' 


' '^^^^^1 






^^ 


if 


■ 


'^ ^^fi^^^^^i 




T 












BARNES'S SCHOOL HISTORY 

OF THE 

UNITED STATES 

BY 

JOEL DORMAN STEELE, Ph.D., F.G.S. 

AND 

ESTHER BAKER STEELE, Lit.D. 

REVISED AND ENLARGED 




AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 

NEW YORK • CINCINNATI • CHICAGO • BOSTON ATLANTA 



VI 



Copyright, 1<)03, 1913, 1919, by 
Amkkican Book Company 



Entered at Stationers' Hall, London 
B. Hist. U. S. — llev. 

W. p. 41 



JUN II 1919 



A5258a8 



PREFACE 

The wide and constant use which has been accorded to Barnes's 
Brief History of the United States, for more than thirty years and 
in all parts of the country, proves that it possesses in an eminent 
degree those qualities of style and arrangement which adapt a 
school text-book for practical class work and make it popular as 
a teaching tool. 

But since it was published the acts of a new generation have 
added momentous chapters to the story of our national life. 
Within this period the industrial and financial center of the world 
has crossed the Atlantic to our shores, and the United States has 
attained acknowledged preeminence among the world powers of 
the earth. Within this period, too, there has been a gradual but 
constant shifting of the point of view from which the history of 
a country is regarded, and of the methods employed in teaching 
it. Descriptions of battles and of the movements of armies 
have come to be considered of less importance, and the social con- 
dition and industries of the people of far greater importance, than 
they formerly were ; and even in the grammar school the pupil 
is expected to pursue a longer or shorter course of collateral 
reading in history outside of his text-book. 

In order that these modified views of history and the method of 
teaching it might be incorporated into the Barnes's History, the 
thorough revision resulting in the present volume was under- 
taken. 

In this revision a consistent effort has been made to retain 
those features of the older book which gave it its extraordinary 
popularity : its main division into epochs ; its topical arrange- 
ment; its interesting footnotes containing collateral facts, minor 



U PREFACE 

events, and brief biographies; and, most important of all, the 
faseiuuting literary style of Dr. Steele. Indeed, his laiij^'utigt; has 
been retained tlu-onj^iiout the greater portion of the book, and in 
all cases where it conformed to the latest and best historical au- 
thorities, witii which the entire work has been rigorously com- 
pared. In the present volume, however, the treatment of battles 
has been somewhat curtailed and greater prominence has been 
given to the life of the people and to the wonderful development 
of our industries. Carefully selected references foi- a brief course 
of collateral readiug have beeu inserted at frequent intervals 
tliroughout the book, and in the appendix is given a classified 
list of works from which further selections nuiy be nuide as de- 
sired. New nuips and pictures have been prepared and placed in 
close connection with the text which they illustrate. 

The words which Dr. Steele used in 1871, in giving to the 
public the original edition of his history, aj^ply with equal force 
to the present revision : 

'' This work is offered to American youth in the confident 
belief that as they study the wonderful history of their native 
land they will learn to prize their birthright more highly, and 
treasure it more carefully. Their patriotism must be kindled 
when they come to see how slowly, yet how gloriously, this tree 
of liberty has grown, what storms have wrenched its boughs, 
what sweat of toil and blood has moistened its roots, what eager 
eyes have watched every out-springing bud, what brave hearts 
have defended it, loving it even unto death. A heritage thus 
sanctified by the heroism and devotion of the fathers can not but 
elicit the choicest care and tenderest love of the sons." 

Esther Baker Steele. 

Elmiia, N. Y.. February, 1903. 



CONTENTS 



PAGE 

Introduction 

The Inrtiaus 9 

The Northmen 15 

Epochs of American History ... 16 

Epoch I. Early Discoveries and Ex- 
plorations 

Europe In the Fifteenth Century . 19 

Columbus 21 

How America was Named .... 26 

TheCabots 27 

Spanish Explorations 29 

French Explorations 34 

Eug'ish Explorations 40 

Dutch Explorations 46 

Conflicting Claims 46 

Epoch II. Development of the Eng- 
lish Colonies 

Virginia 49 

Massachusetts 57 

Maine and New Hampshin; ... 66 

('onnecticut 67 

Rhode Island 70 

New York 71 

New Jersey 75 

Pennsylvania and Delaware ... 76 

Marylanil 79 

The Carolinas 80 

Georgia 84 

Intercolonial Wars 86 

Colonial Society 102 

Colonial Industries 114 

Epoch III. The Revolutionary War 

Causes •. . 119 

Events of 1775 1-24 

Events of 1776 130 

Events of 1777 136 



PAGE 

Events of 1778 143 

Events of 1779 147 

Events of 1780 150 

Events of 1781 156 

Results of the War 160 

The Constitution 164 

Epoch IV. Development of the 
States (to 1861) 
Washington's Administratiou . . .169 

Adams's Administration 175 

Jefferson's Administration . . . .176 
Madison's Administration .... 183 

War of 1812 185 

Monroe's Administration .... 196 
John Quincy Adams's Administra- 
tion 201 

Jackson's Administration .... 203 
Van Burcu's Administration . . . 208 
Harrison and Tyler's .Vdmiuistra- 

tion 210 

James K. Polk's Administration . 215 

Wiir with Mexico 215 

Taylor and Fillmore's Administra- 
tion 223 

Pierce's AdminiKtration 225 

Buchanan's Administration . . . 230 
Society before the Civil War . . .235 

Industrial History 238 

New States 244 

Epoch V. The Ciail War. Lincoln's 
Administration 

Events of 1861 249 

Events of 1862 260 

Events of 1863 279 

Events of 1864 290 

Events of 1865 ........ 304 

New States 309 



8 



CONTENTS 



PAGE 

Epoch "VT. Development of the Na- 
tion (since Isty")) 
Johnson's Administration .... M2 

G-rant's Administration :-!lT 

Hayes's Administration o-2i 

Garfield and Arthur's Administra- 
tion :j-0 

Cleveland's First Administration . 328 
Harrison's Administration .... :«1 
Cleveland'.s Second Administration 3*? 
McKin ley's Administration . . . *W 

The War with Spain :}41 

Industrial History 353 

New States 359 

Proprress in Civilization 36() 



PAGE 

Recent Events 
Roosevelt's Administration . . . 369 

Taft's Administration 375 

Wilson's Administration .... 377 

Appendix 

Chronological Summary . . . i 

References for Reading . . . ix 

Declaration of Independence . xi 
Constitution of the United States xi v 

Questions for Class Use . . . xxviii 

Historical Recreations. ... xli 

Tahlo of States xlvi 

Tahle of Presidents xlviii 

Index xlix 



COLORED MAPS 



Eastern North America, 1754 ... 92 

British Territory, 17»i4 lol 

Northern Colonies during the Revo- 
lution 132 

Southern Colonies during the Revo- 
lution 152 

The United States, about 17911 . . .162 
The United States, ls05 179 



The United States, ls2-l . . . 19>, 199 
The United States, 1850 . . . 226, 227 
The United State's, 1S61 . . . 252, 25:^ 
The States of the Union . . . 3:34, :W5 
The United States and its Outlying 

Possessions 349 

Territorial Development of the 

United States 361 



A SCHOOL HISTOKY OF THE 
UNITED STATES 



INTRODUCTION 

The Indians. — A few hundred years ago there were no 
white men in our country. Nearly all the land was with- 
out inhabitants, but scattered about here and there were 
villages or groups of rude dwellings occupied by Indians. 
In what is now the main part of the United States thei-e 
were at that time fewer people than there are to-day in 
the single city of St. Louis. 

Indians had lived in America for no one knows how 
long — for many centuries at least. They were probably 
descended from the same people as the Chinese and other 
natives of eastern Asia; but where that people lived, and 
when, are alike unknown. It may be that America was 
first settled in that remote age when the Arctic regions 
were warmer than now, and when, as geology teaches, 
this continent was connected by land both with Asia 
and with Europe. At a later period, small parties may 
have crossed Bering Strait, or vessels may have been 
driven by winds and currents across the Pacific Ocean, 
their crews being thankful to escape a watery grave by 
settling a new country. 

American Antiquities. — The Indialis of Mexico, Central 
America, and especially Peru, had advanced almost to a 

9 



10 INTRODUCTION 

state of civilization ; and we find there the ruins of their 
ancient cities, stone temples, and paved roads. 

Within the limits of our own country the Indians were 
in a condition of savagery or barbarism. The most 
famous monuments of the prehistoric inhabitants of the 
country are mounds of earth found in vast numbers in the 
eastern half of the Mississippi valley. There are more 
than 10,000 of them in Ohio alone. They are of many 
shapes — circular, square, and irregular embankments, 
cones, pyramids, and figures of gigantic animals;' and 
are of all sizes up to several acres in area, or several hun- 
dred or thousand feet in length. On some of them were 
found growing forest trees of the largest size. The mounds 
were built by the Indians or their ancestors, for a variety 
of purposes : some were used for military defens<^, some 
served as burial mounds, some marked the sites of huts or 
villages, and some were designed for religious purposes. 
Buried in the mounds, often with the bodies of the dead, 
there have been found many articles used by the Indians, 
including shells, pottery, rude textiles, some implements 
of copper that was dug from old pits still to be seen in 
the Lake Superior region, and, in the later mounds, beads 
which must have been received from the early visitors to 
America from Europe. 

In the southwest of our country thei-e are ruins of cliff 
dwellings and pueblos (pweb'loz), and some pueblos that are 
still occupied. A pueblo was a vast apartment house, built 
of stone or of sun-dried clay, large enougli for a whole vil- 
lage of perhaps several thousand people. The pueblos 
were several stories high, and their rooms were entered 

' An onibiinlcniciit in Afliims Crtnnty, Ohio, iciufscnts v<'ry accurately a siipcnt 
1000 fc'ft louK. Its liody wiiirln with trracclnl curves, and in its widely extended juws 
lies a figure avIucIi tbe auinial seems about to swallow. 



THE INDIANS 



11 



through holes in the roof, which was reached by ladders. 
Such buildings were designed for protection against sud- 



t jt II 











A rUEBLO. 



den attacks by savage foes. The Pueblo Indians irrigated 
and tilled the soil, made good pottery, and wove cloth. 

Tribes. — The Indians of our country were divided into 
several hundred tribes, speaking different languages or 
dialects, and having different customs. In general, each 
tribe lived in a village or group of villages by itself. Ac- 
cording to their languages, the different tribes have been 
arranged in about fifty distinct groups, each group includ- 
ing the tribes of a common origin. Five of the most 
important groups are the Iroquoi'an, Algon'quian, Musk- 
ho'gean, Siouan (soo'an), and Shosho'nean. Of the In- 
dians now living in the United States more than half 
belong to these five groups. 



12 INTHODUCTIUN 

The Iroquuiaii tribes lived in a large region surroiuid- 
ing Lakes Erie and (Ontario, and in a smaller district in 
the southern Appalachian Mountains. Among the tribes 
of this group which we shall meet later in the history of 
our (.'ountry are the five Iroquois tribes,' the Tuscaro'ras, 
and the Cherokees'. 

The Algonquian tribes were very numerous. Their ter- 
ritory surrounded the noi'thern Iroquoian region, and ex- 
tended from the Atlantic Ocean to the Mississippi Riv^er 
in the region of the Ohio valley and the Great Lakes. 

The Muskhogean tribes lived in the South, east of the 
Mississippi River and north of the Gulf of Mexico. They 
were sun worshipers, and were better skilled in agricul- 
ture than most other Indians. 

The Siouaii tribes occupied the western side of the 
Mississippi basin. Some of them were among the most 
warlike of all Indians. 

The Shoshonean triljos occupied the greater part of 
the Rocky Mountain highland and the southern part of 
the Great Plains. 

Indian Characteristics. — Arts and Livrntions. — The 
Indian built no cities, no ships, no chui-ches, no school- 
houses. In general he constructed only temporary wig- 
wams of bark or skins, and canoes of bii*ch bark. He 
made neither roads nor bridges, but followed footpaths 
through the forest, and swam the streams. His highest 
art was expended in a simple bow and arrow. 

Progress aud Oovernment. — He made no advancement, 

• The Flvo Nations of Iroquois (Son'ecns, Cayu'sras, Oiiondajras, Onoi'das, aud Mo'- 
bawks) formod a confederacy slylcd tlic "Loiifr House," because those Indians dwelt 
in bark liouses often 2riO f(>et in lenfrth and :W feet wide, each htdding twenty or 
thirty families This leafine I'onned, in fact, a loosely organized reimblie, witli a con- 
gress of the chiefs or sachems of the ditterent tribes. Fierce, bloodthirsty, and fond 
of conquest, the Iroquois might perhaps luive subdued tlic continent if the white 
man bad not come. Early travelers called them the Romans of tlie New World. 



THE INDIANS 



13 



but each son emulated the prowess of his father in the 
hunt and the fight. The hunting ground and the battle- 
field embraced everythiug of real honor or value. So 
the sou was educated to throw the tomahawk, shoot the 
arrow, and catch fish with the spear. He knew nothing 
of books, paper, writing, or history. The Indian respected 
the chiefs or wise men of his tribe, but they governed by 
influence rather than by authority. Even when the tribal 
council decided to make war, every Indian was free to 
fight or not, as he chose. 

Domestic Life. — The Indian had neither cow nor beast 
of burden. He regarded all labor as degrading and fit 
only for women. His squaw, therefore, built his wigwam, 




INDIAN LIFE. 



cut his wood, and carried his burdens when he journeyed. 
While he hunted or fished, she cleared the land for his 
corn by burning down the trees, scratched the ground 



14 INTRODUCTION 

with a crooked stick or dug it with a clam shell, dressed 
skins for his clothing, and prepared his food. The leav- 
ings of her lord's feast sufficed for her, and the coldest 
place in the wigwam was hers. 

Disposition. — In war the Indian was l)rave and alert, 
but cruel and revengeful, preferring trea<'liery and cun- 
ning to open battle. At home he was hizy, improvident, 
and an inveterate gaml)ler. He delighted in finery and 
trinkets, and decked his unclean pei'son with paint and 
feathers. His grave and haughty demeanor repelled the 
stranger ; but he was grateful for favoi's, and his wigwam 
always stood hospitably open to th(i poorest and meanest 
of his tribe. 

Endurance. — He could endure great fatigue, and in 
his expeditions often lay without shelter in the severest 
weather. It was liis glory to bear the most horril)le tor- 
tures without a sign of suffering. 

Relir/ion.^lt he had any ideas of a Supreme Being, 
they were vague and degraded. His dream of a heaven 
was of happy hunting grounds or of gay feasts. He wor- 
shiped no idols, but peopled all nature with spirits, 
which dwelt not only in birds, beasts, and reptiles, but 
also in lakes, rivers, and waterfalls. As he believed these 
had power to help or harm men, he lived in constant fear 
of offending them. He apologized, therefore, to the ani- 
mals he killed, and made solemn pi-omises to fishes that 
their bones should be respected. He placed great stress 
on dreams, and his camp swarmed with sorcerers and for- 
tune tellers. 

The Indian of the Present. — Such was the Indian three 
hundred years ago, and such is many an Indian to-day. 
He has opposed the encroachments of the settler, and the 
building of railroads. But he could not stop the tide of 



THE INDIANS 



15 



immigration. Almost all the Indians in this country now 
have been gathered into tracts of land called reservations. 




jJjJjnf^iS III, II) 







INDIAN HIEKOGI.YPHICS.' 

Many of them are supported in partial idleness by our 
government, in fulfillment of treaties ; but some of the 
tribes have become civilized and are jirosperous — they 
have good houses and schools, and live much like the 
white men. It is earnestly to be hoped that all the red 
men may yet be Christianized and taught the arts of in- 
dustry and peace. 

The Northmen (descendants of the early inhabitants of 
Norway, and Sweden) were probably the first Europeans 
to set foot on the American continent. Iceland was 
settled by Northmen more than a thousand years ago; 
and there are Icelandic traditions which tell about a Norse 
colony founded in Greenland, and about some early voy- 
ages to the land south of it. They say that one Bjarni 

' This cut represents a species of pictui-e writing occasionally used by the Indians. 
Some Indian fjiiidos wished to iufonn their comrades that a company of fourteen 
wliites and two Indians had spent the iiight at a certain place. Nos. 9, 10 indicate the 
white soldiers and their arms, No. 1 is the captain, with a sword; No. 2 tlie secre- 
tary, with the book; No. 3 the geoh)gist, with a hammer; Nos. 4, 5, 6 are attend- 
ants; Nos. 7, 8 are the guides, without hats; Nos. 11, 12 show what they ate in 
camp, Nos. 13, 14, 15 indicate how many fires they made. 



16 INTRODUCTION 

(be ar'iie) first saw the land to tlie south, while driven out 
of his course ou his way to Greenland. A few years later, 
they say, about the year 1000, Leif Er'iesson exi)lored the 
coast southward and discovered " Vinland" (i)erhaps New 
England), returning to Greenland with a load of timber. 
Afterwards other adventurers made successful yoyages, 
established a temporary settlement, and bartered with the 
natives. Snor'ro, son of one of these settlers, is said to 
have been the first child born of European parents upon 
our shore.' How much credit is to be given to these tra- 
ditions is uncertain, but the story is probably true in the 
main. There was certainly a Norse colony in Greenland 
not long after the time stated in the traditions; and ruins 
of its stone buildings are still to be seen. But on this 
continent the Northmen left no evidence of their visits." 
Admitting, however, the claim made for the Northmen, 
the fact is barren of all results. No permanent settle- 
ments were made, the route hither was lost, and even the 
existence of the continent was forgotten. 

The true history of this country begins with the dis- 
covery of America by Columbus in 1492. It naturally 
divides itself into six great epochs. 

First Epoch. — Early Discoveries and Exploration }<. — This 
epoch extends from the discovery of America in 1492, to 
the settlement at Jamestown, Va., in 1607. During this 
period various European nations were exploring the 
southern and eastern parts of our country. 

' Snorro was tlio founder of an illustrious family. One of liis descendants is said to 
have been AltxMt Tliorwaldscn, tlii" trrcat Danisb Bciilptor of the ninef-eentli century. 
The iK'autiful pliotoitraphs of Thorwaldscn's "Day," "Night," and "The Seasons," 
which han^r in so many American homes, thus acquire a new interest by being linked 
with the l)()y born on New England shores so many centuries ago. 

!*The rock inscription at Dight<m, Mass., was the work of Indians; the fanicms 
stone tower at Newport, R. I., was a windmill Iniilt by English settlers. Both, how- 
ever, were for a time suinioscd by many to have been the work of Northmen. 



EPOCHS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 17 

Second Epoch. — Development of the English Colonies. — 
The second epoch extends from the settlement at James- 
town, Va., in 1607, to the breaking out of the Revolu- 
tionary War in 1775. During this period the scattered 
settlements along the Atlantic coast grew into thirteen 
flourishing colonies, subject to Great Britain. 

Third Epoch. — The Revolutionary War. — This epoch ex- 
tends from the breaking out of the Revolutionary War in 
1775, to the beginning of government under the Constitu- 
tion in 1789. During this period the colonies threw off the 
government of Great Britain and established their inde- 
pendence. 

Fourth Epoch. — Development of the States {to 18G1). — 
This epoch extends from the inception of the Constitu- 
tion in 1789, to the breaking out of the Ci\dl War in 1861. 
During this period great additions were made to our ter- 
ritory, the States increased in number from thirteen to 
thirty-four, and the country increased rapidly in popula- 
tion and wealth. 

Fifth Epoch. — The Civil War. — This epoch extends 
from the breaking out of the Civil War in 1861, to the 
surrender of the Confederate armies in 1865. During this 
period a gigantic strife was carried on between the 
Northern and the Southern States, the former struggling 
for the perpetuation of the Union, and the latter for its 
division. 

Sixth Epoch. — Development of the Nation {since 1865). — 
The sixth epoch extends from the close of the Civil War 
in 1865, to the present time. During this period the 
different problems growing out of the Civil War have 
been solved, the number of States has been further in- 
creased, and in industry and wealth the country has be- 
come the greatest in the world. 

B. HIST. U. S.— 2 



18 



TXTKODUCTION 



COLLATERAL READINGS 

The Indians.-" Fiske's 7)<Vor«';*(/«/ A wicriVo, vol i. pp. 1-21,140-147; or Parkman's 
Cniispirary of I'oiilitic, fliap i. 

The Northmen. — Fiske's Discorery of Americtt, vol. i. pp. lf)'2-17«. 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS 



]. The Indians. 



The Northmen. 



1. Their Xuiiiber. 
-. M'ho were tliey? 
;i. Anifi-ican Antiquitie.- 
4. Tribes. 



r>. Iii(1ia:i Characteristics. 



<;. Tlio 



Indian 
Present. 



if the 



^ a. 2 fount In. 
( b. I'lifblus. 

a. Arts and Inven- 
tions. 

h. Progress and Gov- 
ernment. 

c. Domestic Life. 

d. Disposition. 

e. Endurance. 

f. Religion. 



Natural Divisions of 
United States History. 



I 1. Who were they? 

2. Stories of Bjiinii and 
Leif EriissDii 

'.l. Who was .Siiono? 

4. The NorthuiL-n in 

Greenlainl 

5. Results. 

1. First Epoch. 

2. Second Epoch. 

3. Third Epoch. 

4. Fourth Epoch. 
.'5. Fiftli Epoch. 
C. S;.v;th Epoch. 



EPOCH I.- EARLY DISCOYERIES AND 
EXPLORATIONS 

Geographical Knowledge in the Fifteenth Century. — The 
people of Europe in the fifteenth centnry had never heard 
of America.^ About that time a great desire for geo- 
graphical knowledge was awakened. The compass and 
the astrolabe — an instrument for ascertaining latitude — 
had given a new impulse to navigation. Voyagers were 
no longer compelled to creep along the shore, but began to 
strike out boldly into the 
open sea. The art of print- 
ing had just come into 
use, and books of travel 
were eagerly read. Marco 
Polo and other adventurers 
returning from the East 
told wonderful tales of the 
wealth of Asiatic cities. 

Genoa and Venice, com- 
manding the commerce of the Mediterranean, had be- 
come enriched by trade with the East. The costly shawls, 

1 At the opeuins of modern liistory the known -worll comprised only Europe, 
southwestern Asia, and a strip of northern Africa, Cape Nim was considered the 
limit of navitration on the African coast. The most absurd ideas prevailed in regard 
to the regions beyond. The water at the equator was thought to be boiling hot ; the 
tropic sun, it was said, would permanently blacken the skin of any white man who 
ventured farther i^outh; and the unknown seas wcro supposed to bo peopled by 
terrible sc;i monsters. 

19 




FIFTEENTH-CENTURT SHIP. 



20 EARLY DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS [1453 

spices, aDd silks of Persia and India were borne by cara- 
vans and ships to the Red Sea, thence on camels across 




THE KNOWN WORM) IN 1490. 



the desert to the Nile, and lastly by ship over the Medi- 
terranean to Europe; or they were carried by caravans to 
the Black Sea or to the Mediterranean, and thence by 
ship to western Europe. But when the Turks took Con- 
stantinople (1453) they put a sudden end to much of this 
commerce, and as they advanced on Egypt they threat- 
ened to end the Eastern trade entirely. 

The great problem of the age was how to reach the 
East Indies by sea, and thus give a new and cheaper 
route to their rich products.' 

' Tlio Portuguese were at tliis time the iBOst euterprisliig navipators in Europe. 
Prince Henry devoted himself to the study of astrououiy, touudcd an observatory 



1474J CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS 21 

The Discovery of America. — Columbus^ conceived that 
he could reach the East Indies by sailing west. He be- 
lieved the eai'th to be round, while almost every one then 
thought it to be flat. He, however, thought it was smaller 
than it really is, and that Asia extended much farther 
round the world to the east than it does. Hence he 
argued that by going a few hundred leagues west he would 
reach the eastern coast of Asia.' He was determined to 
try this new route, but was too poor to pay for the neces- 
sary ships and provisions. 

and a naval college, collected all existing information concerning the earth's em- 
face, and prepared new and more accurate charts for navigators. His father, John I., 
and his grandnephew, John II., encouraged maritime explorations. Under such 
auspices the Portuguese sailors made voyage after voyage along the African coast. 
They discovered the Azores' and Cape Verde Islands, crossed the dreaded equator, 
and finally, under Diaz (dee'ahth), reached the southern extremity of Africa, and 
sailed several hundred miles eastward (1486). On liis return, Diaz told of the cape 
which he called Stormy Cape ; but the king, believing the long-desired route to India 
was now found, rechristened it the Cape of Good Hope. 

1 Christopher Columbus was born in Genoa, Italy, about 1435. He was trained for 
the sea from his childhood. As he was the eldest of four children, and his father a 
poor wool comber, much care devolved upon him. It is said that at thirty his hair 
was white from trouble and anxiety. 

Columbus was determined, shrewd, and intensely religious. He believed himself 
to be divinely called to " carry the true faith into the uttermost parts of the earth." 
Inspired by this thought, no discouragement or contumely could drive him to despair. 
It was eighteen years from the conception of his plan to the time when he was en- 
abled to try his new route. During all this time his life was a marvel ot patience, and 
of ttrave devotion to his one purpose. His sorrows were many ; his triumph was 
brief. Evil men maligned him to Ferdinand and Isabella, the Spanish monarchs 
who supplied his ships. Disregarding their promise that he should be governor gen- 
eral over all the lands he might discover, the king and queen sent out another gov- 
ernor, and by his order Columbus was taken home in chains ! It is sad to know that 
although Ferdinand and Isabella endeavored to soothe his wounded spiiit by many 
attentions, they never restored to him his lawful rights. From fluent promises they 
passed at last to total neglect, and Columbus died a grieved and disappointed old man. 
At his request, his chains were buried with him, a touching memorial of Spanish 
ingratitude. 

^ Several facts served to strengthen the faith of Columbus in the correctness of his 
theory. The Azores and the Madeira, Canary, and Cape Verde islands, being the most 
westerly lands then known, were the outposts of geographical knowledge. There had 
been washed on their shores, by currents from the west, pieces of wood curiously 
carved, trees and seeds of unknown species, and especiallj' the bodies of two men of 
atrange color and visage. 



22 EAULY DISCOVERIES AND EXPLOKATIONS [1484 

Columbus at the Court of Fortu/jal. — He accordingly 
laid his plan before King John of Portugal, who referred 
it to his geographers. They pronounced it a visionary 
scheme. With a lurking feeling, however, that there 
might be truth in it, the king had the meanness to dis- 
patch a vessel secretly to test the matter. The pilot had 
the charts of Columbus, but lacked his courage. After 
sailing westward from Cape Verde Islands for a few days, 
and seeing nothing but a wide waste of wildly tossing 
waves, he returned, ridiculing the idea. 

Columhus at the Court of Spain. — Columbus, disheart- 
ened by this treachery, betook himself to Spain. During 
seven long years he importuned Knig Ferdinand and 
others for help in his plan. All this while he was re- 
garded as a visionary fellow, and when he passed along 
the streets, even the children touched their foreheads and 
smiled. The learned council at Salamanca promptly de- 
clared the plan too foolish for serious attention.^ Colum- 
bus gained a few influential friends, but King Ferdinand 
and Queen Isabella declined to aid him. Turning away 
sadly, Columbus determined to go to Fiance. 

Columhus Successful. — His friends at the Spanish court, 
at this juncture, laid the matter before Queen Isabella, and 
she was finally won to his cause. The king remained 
indifferent and pleaded the want of funds. The queen in 
her earnestness exclaimed, "I pledge my jewels to raise 
the money." But her sacrifice was not required. The 
royal treasurer advanced most of the money, and the 

' "It is ahsiml," said tiioec wise men. " Wlio is so foolisli as to l.clieve tliat there 
are people on the otlier side of tlie, world, walking with their heels upward and their 
heads hantrinfj down? And then, how ean a ship get there? The torrid zone, 
tlirongli whieh tliey must jiass, is a re>ri«n of tire, where the very waves boil. And 
even if a ship could perchance get around there safely, how could it ever get back? 
Can a shij) sail uphill f" All of which sounds very strange to us now, when every 
year hundreds of travelers make the entire circuit of the (ilobe. 



1492] C'HKISTOPHEK COLUMBUS 23 

friends of Columbus the remainder. Columbus had suc- 
ceeded at last, after eighteen years of waiting. 

Co lum bus's Equip- 
ment. — Though, he 
was armed with 
the king's author- 
ity, Columbus ob- 
tained vessels and 
sailors with the 
greatest difficulty. 
The boldest sea- 
men shrank from 
such a desperate 
undertaking. At 
last three small ves- 
sels were manned: the Pinta (peen'- 
tah), Smita Maria (salin'tah mah- 
ree'ah), and l^ina (neen'yah). They 
sailed from Palos (pah'los), Spain, August 3, 1492. 

Incidents of the Voyage. — They went first to the Cana- 
ries and then sailed westward on the untried sea. When 
the sailors saw the last trace of land fade from their sight, 
many, even of the bravest, burst into tears. As they pro- 
ceeded, their hearts were wrung by superstitious fears. 
To their dismay, the compass began to vary from its usual 
direction, and they believed that they were coming into a 
region where the very laws of nature were changed. They 
came into the track of the trade wind, which wafted them 
steadily westward. This, they were sure, was carrying 
them to destruction, for how could they ever return against 
it f Signs of land, such as flocks of birds and fresh, green 
plants, were often seen, and the clouds near the horizon 
assumed the look of land ; but they disappeared, and only 




24 EAKLV DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS [1492 

the bioad ocean spread out before them as they advanced. 
The sailors, so often deceived, lost heart and insisted upon 
returning home. Columbus, with wonderful tact and 
l)atience, explained all these appearances. But the more 
he argued, the louder became their murmurs. At last 
they secretly determined to throw him overboard. Al- 
though he knew their feelings, he did not waver, but 
declared that he would proceed till the enterprise was 
accomplished. 

Soon, signs of laii<l silenced their murmurs. A staff, 
artificially carved, and a branch of thorn with berries 
floated near. All was now eager expectation. In the 
evening Columbus beheld a light rising and falling in the 
distance, as of a torch borne by one walking. Later at 
night the joyful cry of " Land!" rang out from the Pinta. 
In the morning the shore of an island, green with tropical 
verdure, lay smiling before them. 

TJie Lavd'uifj. — Columbus, dressed in a splendid military 
suit of scarlet embroidered with gold, and followed by a 
retinue of his officers and men bearing banners, landed 
upon this island Friday, October 12, 1492. He threw him- 
self upon his knees, kissed the earth, and wnth tears of 
joy gave thanks to God. He then formally planted the 
cross and took possession of the country in the name of 
Ferdinand and Isabella.' 

Further Dlscoverirs. — Columbus named the island San 
Salvador. He supposed that he had reached one of the 
islands lying off the eastern coast of India (Asia), and he 
therefore called the dark-hued natives Indians. Careful 
inquiries were- made concerning the rich i)roducts of the 

1 This island was one of the Bahamas - probably Watlinp Island. The wondering 
natives who crowded the shore prized on the spectacle with awe. They supposed the 
ships to be huge white-winged birds, and the Spaniards to have come from heaven. 



1492] 



CHRISTOPHEE COLUMBUS 



25 



East, such as spices, precious stoues, and especially gold 
But the simple people had only a few golden ornaments. 
These they readily bartered for small bells. Columbus 
then visited Cuba, which he thought was part of the Asian 




mainland; and Hai'ti,' which he 
took to be Cipan'go, or Japan. 
He even sent a deputation into 
Cuba, to a famous chief, suppos- 
ing him to be the great king of 
Tartary ! At last, urged by his crew, he gave up the 
search for Oriental treasure and sailed for home. 

His Reception, on his return, was flattering in the ex- 
treme. The whole nation took a holiday. His appear- 
ance was hailed with shouts and the ringing of bells. The 
king and queen were dazzled by their new and sudden 

1 The Pintn had become separated from the other shinB, and the S^anta Mnria was 
■wTecked ol the shores of Haiti — or Hispanio'la, as it was tirst named. As the Nina 
■was too small to carry a doiil)h> crew, a colony of forty men was left on this island — 
the first settlement of Spaniards in the western hemisphere. When Columbus came 
here on his second voyage he found that every one of these settlers had perished. 



2G EAKLY DISCO VKRI KS AND MX I'LOK ATDJNS [1493 

acquisition. As Columbus told them of the beautiful 
land he had found, its brilliaut birds, its tropical forests, 
its delightful climate, aud, above all, its natives waiting 
to be converted to the Christian faith, they sank upon 
their knoos and gave thanks to (Tod. 

The M'isfahc. of Cohinihii.s. — Columbus never even sus- 
pected that there was any such continent as America. 
People then supposed that all the land in the world was 
embraced in the three pai'tsor continents of Europe, Asia, 
and Africa, with the adjacent islands. Coluujbus did not 
set out to discover a new world. He was instead tiying 
a new route to the eastern coast of Asia, which he thought 
was much nearer than it really is. He found some tropi- 
cal islands and coasts about wliere he had expected to find 
those of Asia ; and for many years everybody thought 
that he had succeeded in his (^uest. Ho made three later 
voyages to tlie same region, exploring more islands and 
coasts.' But he never lost the delusion that these lands 
were on the eastern coast of Asia, and died ignorant of 
the fact that he had really discovered a new world.- 

How America was named, — Amer'icus Vespu'cius,^ an 
Italian in the service of Portugal, made a voyage along 

1 It was not till 14'.»«, liowcver, that he ti)uchcd the inainhind of America. This was 
oil his third voyage, aud the laud foaiid was near the mouth of the Orinoco Kiver. 

-'The body of Columbus was Vniried at Valladolid. It was thence transported, in 
ISIS, to the Carthusian Monastery of Seville, nnd twenty-three years later to the city of 
Haiito Domiiifio, in the island of Haiti. In 179G the remains, as was snpi>osed, w<t<' taken 
to Havana with imiiosinj: ceremonies ; and in 18:;8, after the war between Spain and the 
United States, they were conveyed to Seville, in Spain. But it is now claiuicd by 
Koiue that this body is not that of the {.Teat admiral, but of another member of his 
family ; tor in 1877, while an cxeavati<m was l>eing made near the Catheilral in Santo 
I>omin;j;o, a vault was opened and a leaden coHiu was found containinK human bonci--, 
and insirtbed in Ppiinis:) : " Illustrious and renowned man, Christopher Columbus." 

a In Italian this )ian>.e is Amerigo Vespucci (ah mfi rce'go ves poofchee). Vespu- 
cius marti' several voyages of discovery. It is believed that on the first voyage, under 
Piiizon (peen thon) and S<dis in the service of Spain, he f<dlowed the coast from Vuca- 
tnn northward jironud Florida; aud that this was in 1197 — before Columbus had dis- 
covered the mainland. 



1501] 



HOW AMERICA WAS NAMED 



27 



the coast of what is now Brazil (1501).^ This coast was so 
long and was so far southeast of the lands discovered by 

Columbus that it was 
supposed to be a hitherto 
unknown continent — a 
new world. 

A letter from Ves- 
pucius, describing his 
voyages, was published 
(1507) by a German au- 
thor, who suggested that 





the new part of the world should be called 
America after its discoverer. This, being 
the first printed description of the new^ 
world, was very popular, and the name 
was soon adopted by geographers. 
For a time it was applied only to 
part of South America ; for the 
lands found by Columbus and 
others far to the northwest — 
were supposed to be parts 
of Asia. When this mis- 
take was corrected, the 
name was naturally given to the whole of the New World. 
John Cab'ot, an Italian navigator living in Bristol, Eng- 
land, ol)taiiied authority from King Henry VII. to make 

1 In 1497 an expedition uurter Viisco dii Gii'ma sailed from Portugal, and following 
the track of Diaz around the Cape of Good Hope, crossed the Indian Ocean, reached 
India, and two years later returned to Portugal laden with rich cargoes from the 
Orient. The problem of the sea route was solved! On Gama's return, a fleet under 



28 EARLY DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS [1497 

a voyage of discovery to the east, west, or north. After 
a voyage to the west, lie canie in siglit of a sterile 
region, probably Labrador (map, p. 45), and sailed aloug 
the coast for many leagues. This was in 1497, fourteen 
months before Columbus discovered the continent. Cabot 
supposed that he had reached the territory of the " Great 
Cham," king of Tartary. Nevertheless he landed, planted 
a banner, and took possession in the name of the king of 
England. On his return home he was received with much 
honor, was dressed in silk, and styled the "Grand Admiral." 

The next year Cabot made a second voyage to the west. 
He probably discovered Newfoundland and coasted as far 
south as Cape Cod. It is believed that his son Sebastian 
accompanied him on his voyages. As the Cabots found, 
no gold, precious stones, or spices, the second expedi- 
tion was considered a failure. Yet by their discoveries 
England claimed a title to a vast territory in the New 
World. 

We shall now follow the principal explorations made 
within the limits of the future United States by the 
SpwtisJi^ Frotch, Enr/Iish, and Dutch. The Spanish ex- 
plored mainly the southern portion of North America ; 
the French, the northern ; and the English, the middle 
portion along \\m coast.' 

Cabnir set out for India, but on its way it pallet! so far to tbe west that Cabral sighted 
land (Brazil) in a region where no land was supposed to be. He therefore sent word 
of his discovery to the Portuguese kin^, and the voyaRC of Vespucius was the result. 

1 In South America Spain explored and acquired all the land except Brazil, which 
fell to Portugal. Pope Alexander VI. in 1403 apportioned the unknown regions of the 
earth to Spain and Portugal, giving to Spain all west and to Portugal all east of 
a line running north and south lOO leagues west of the Azoreswaud Capo Verde Islands. 
This "line of demarcation" was soon changed, by treaty, to the meridian 370 leagues 
west of the Cape V'erde Islands. By this change a large part of the then unheard-of 
New World was given to Portugal, and her claim was soon established by the discover- 
ies of Cabral and Vespucius. But the chief energies of Portujral were devoted to 
Africa and especially India; for a time she monopolized the protitable Eastern trade 
which Venice and Genoa had lost. 



1521] SPANISH EXPLORATIONS 29 

COLLATERAL READING 

Fiske's Discovery of America, vol. i. pp. 349-354, 395-446 (on Columbus) ; or vol. ii. 
pp. 1-18 (on the Cabots) ; or vol. ii. pp. 25-47 (on Vespucius). 



SPANISH EXPLORATIONS 

Feeling in Spain. — America, at this time, was to the 
Spaniard a land of vague but magnificent promise, where 
the simple natives wore the costliest gems unconscious of 
their value, and the sands of the rivers sparkled with 
gold. Every returning ship brought fresh iiev/s to quicken 
the pulse of Spanish enthusiasm. Now, Cor'tes had taken 
Mexico, and reveled in the wealth of the Montezu'mas; now, 
Pizar'ro had conquered Peru, and had captured the riches 
of the Incas; now, Magel'lan, sailing through the strait 
which bears his name, had crossed the Pacific, and one of 
his vessels, returning home by the Cape of Good Hope, 
had circumnavigated the globe.^ Men of the highest rank 
and culture, warriors, adventurers, all flocked to the New 
World. Soon Cuba,'- Hispaniola (Haiti), Porto Rico, and 
Jamaica were settled, and ruled by Spanish governors. 
From her American colonies, Spain received many ship- 
loads of gold and silver, which helped t() make her for a 
time the wealthiest and most powerful nation in Europe. 
Though the Spaniards enslaved the Indians, yet an ever- 

1 Magellan was a Portugueige in the service of Spain. His voyage was made in 
spite of mutiny, famine, and other great difficulties. In the Pacific, which he named, 
he discovered the Ladrones' and the Phil'ippines 0521). In the Philippines he joined a 
friendly chief in an attack on some natives who refused to accept Christianity, and he 
was billed while covering the retreat of his men after their defeat. Tlic Spaniards 
took possession of the Philippines a few years later, and founded Manila iu 1571 
(map, p. 349). For about two hundred years all trade and coujiuunication between 
Spain and the Pliilippines were f>y way of Mexico or South America. Hence the con- 
nection of the Philippines witli the New World began more than three centuries 
before this great Spanish colony was ceded to the United States. 

2 The natives of Cuba were subdued by Velasquez (va lahs'keth) in 1512, As in the 
other islands of the West Indies, the Indians were reduced to .slavery, and perished in 
great numbers. Havana, the greatest city of the West Indies, was founded in 1519. 



30 EAKLV DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS [1511 

present motive in their exploration of the New World was 
the desire to convert the Indians to Christianity. Among 
the Spanish explorers of the sixteenth century we notice 
the following: 

Ponce de Leon was the first governor of Porto Rico. As 
such, he conquered the natives, and in 1511 founded San 
Juan (sahn hoo ahn'), the oldest city in United States ter- 
ritory. The pext year, however, he was deprived of his 
government. Though an old man, he was still a gallant 
soldier, and he coveted the glory of further conquest to re- 
store his tarnished reputation. Besides, he had heard of a 
magic fountain, in a great island to the northwest, where 
one might bathe and be made young again. Accordingly, he 
equii)ped an expedition and sailed in search of this fabled 
treasure. On Easter Sunday {Pascua Florida in Spanish), 
1513, he came in sight of land. In honor of the day he 
called it Florida. He sailed along the coast, and landed 
here and there, l)ut returned home at last, an old man 
still, having found neither youth nor glory. 

Balbo'a crossed the Isthmus of Panama the same year, 
and from the summit of the mountains beheld a wide 
expanse of the Pacific Ocean, which he called the South 
Sea.' Wading into its waters with his naked sword in one 
hand and a Spanish banner in the other, he solemnly de- 
clared that the ocean, and all the shores which it might 
touch, belonged to the crown of Spain forever. 

Narvaez (nar vah'eth) received a grant of Florida, and 
(1528) with 400 men attcmj)ted its conquest. Striking 
into the interior, they wandered about, lured on by the 
hope of finding gold. Wading through swamps, crossing 
deep rivers by swimming and by rafts, fighting the lurk- 
ing Indians who incessantly harassed their path, and 

I It was so called becaurse at this point the ocean is south of the land. 



1528] 



SPANISH EXPLORATIONS 



31 



nearly perishiDg with hunger, they reached at last the 
Gulf of Mexico. Hastily constructing pomo crazy boats, 
they sailed westward. After several weeks of peril and 
suffering, they were shipwrecked, and Narvaez was lost. 
Eight years afterwards four persons — the only survivors 
of this ill-fated expedition — reached the Spanish settle- 
ments on the Pacific coast of Mexico. 

Ferdinand de Soto, undismayed by these failures, under- 
took anew the conquest of Florida. He set out with 600 
men, amid the fluttering of banners, the flourish of trump- 
ets, and the gleaming of helmet and lance. For month 
after month this procession of cavaliers, priests, soldiers, 
and Indian captives marched through the wilderness, wher- 




1)1. ^<^T(> FINDS THE JIISSISSIFPI. 



ever they thought gold might be found. They traversed 
what is now Greorgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. In the 
third year of their wanderings (1541) they emerged upon 
the bank of the Mississippi River. After another year of 



32 EARLY DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS [1542 

fruitless explorations, De Soto died.' The other adven- 
turers were now anxious only to get home in safety. They 
constructed boats and descended the river, little over half 
of this gallant array finally reaching the settlements in 
Mexico. 

Menendez (ma nen'deth), wiser than his predecessors, on 
landing (1565), forthwith laid the foundations of a colony. 
In honor of the day, he named it St. Augustine. This is 
the oldest town on tlie maiidand of the United States." 

Explorations on the Pacific. — Calijbrnia, in the sixteenth 
century, was a general name applied to all the region 
northwest of Mexico. It is said to have originated in an 
old Spanish romance very popular in the time of Cortes, 
in which appeared a queen whose magnificent country 
bore this name. The Mexican Indians told the Spaniards 
that most of their gold and precious stones came from a 
country far to the northwest, (brtes, therefore, turned 
his attention in that direction, and sent out several expe- 
ditions to exploi-e the Californias; but all these adven- 
turers returned empty-handed.^ 

Corond'do made the first extensive exploration of the 
southwestern part of our country. Starting from the 
Pacific coast of Mexico, he marched to the northeast as 
far as the present States of Kansas and Nebraska. He 
found the curious houses of the Pueblo Indians in New 

1 At the cload of uight liis followers sank bis body in the river, anil the Bulleii 
waters Imried his hopes aud his ambition. " He hud croHsed a large part of tlie conti- 
nent," sajH Baneroft, " and found iiothinf; so remarkable aa his biu'ial plaee." 

- Many Spanish remains still exist. Among these is Fort Marion, once San Marco, 
wbieli was founded in 1505 aud finished in 1755. It is built of eoquina (ko kenu) — a 
curious stono composed of small sliells. 

3 Ships were also sent from Mexico across the Pacific, aud one of these, driven out 
of its course, was wrecked on the Ha waiiau Islands (1527). Later this group was discov- 
ered by a Spanish explorer (1555) and was marked on a few old Spanish charts; but 
the Spaniards did not take possession of the islands. The natives, several hundred 
thousand in number, were left to themselves for more than two centuries, until the 
islauds were rediscovered by Captaiu Cook, the famous English navigator (1778). 



1542] 



SPANISH EXPLORATIONS 



33 



Mexico, but of the gold that he sought he found none 
(1540-42). 

CabriUo (kah breel'vo) made the first voyage along 
what is now the ('alifornia coast (1542); he died in San 
Diego (sahn de a'go) harbor, but his pilot went many 
miles farther north. 

Espejo (es pa'ho) explored and named New Mexico 
(1582), and a few years later the Spaniards founded 
Santa Fe (sahn tah fa'), which is the oldest town in the 
western United States. 

Spanish Claims in North America in i6oo. — Spain, at the 
close of the sixteenth century, had conquered and held 




SPANISH EXPLORATIONS IN NORTH AMERICA TO 1600. 

possession of the West Indies, Central America, and 
Mexico. Besides this Spanish explorers had traversed 
the whole of the southern portion of the United States 
from the Atlantic to the Pacific. All this part of our 

B. HIST. U. 8.-3 



y-i EAliLY DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS [1524 

vast territory, aud moi'e, they claimed by the rights of 
discovery and exploration, though their only settlements 
in it were St. Augustine in Florida and Santa Fe in New 
Mexico. 

COLLATERAL READING 
Fisko'.s Discoi'crij of Aiiierini, vol. ii. pp. 500-511. 

FRENCH EXPLORATIONS 

The French were eager to share in the profits which 
Spain was acquiring in the New World. Within seven 
years after the discovery of the continent the waters of 
Newfoundland were frequented by their fishermen.* For 
many years after Magellan's voyage, mariners of various 
nations tried to find a "northwest passage" to India 
through or around North America." 

Verrazano (-tsah'no), a native of Florence, Italy, was the 
first navigator sent by the French king to find the new way 
to the Indies. Sailing westward from Madeira (1524), he 
reached land near the present harbor of Wilmington, N. C. 
He coasted along the shores of Carolina aud New Jersey, 
entered the harbors of New York and Newport, and re- 
turned with a glowing description of the lands he had 
found. He named the country New France. 

Cartier (kar tya') ascended the Eiver St. Lawrence^ 
(1535) to the Indian village of Hochelaga (ho she lah'gah), 
on the site of Montreal. The village was pleasantly sit- 
uated at the foot of a lofty hill, which Cartier climbed. 

1 Cape Breton Island was nanierl by the flahermen in reiuetubranco of their home 
iu Brittany, France. 

•-! The routes by the Capo of Gooil Hrtpe and by the Strait of Magellan were loiii; and 
tedious. But it was at last found that the real northwest passage was still more dif- 
ficult. It was lirst traversed iu 1850-54, from Bering Sea to Baffin Bay. It is of no 
value to commerce. 

3 The name St. Lawrence was that of the day on which Cartier entered the gulf. 



1562J FRENCH EXPLORATIONS 35 

Stirred by the magnificent prospect, he named the place 
Mont Real, that is. Mount Royal. 

Ribaut (re bo') led out the first expedition (1562) under 
the auspices of Coligny (ko leen yee').^ The company 
landed at the site of Port Royal, S. C. So charmed 
were they that when volunteers were called for to hold 
the country for France, many eagerly came forward — 
more than could be allowed to stay. They erected a fort, 
which they named Carolina in honor of Charles IX.,- king 
of France. The fleet departed, leaving a little band of 
thirty alone on the continent. From the North Pole to 
Mexico, they were the only civilized men. Food became 
scarce. They tired of the eternal solitude of the wilder- 
ness, and finally built a rude ship and put to sea. Here a 
storm shattered their vessel. Famine overtook them, and, 
in their extremity, they killed and ate one of their num- 
ber. A vessel at last hove in sight, and took them on 
board, only to carry them captives to England.^ Thus 
perished the colony, but the name still survives. 

Laudonniere (lo do ne ar'), two years after, built a fort, 
also called Carolina, on the St. Johns River in Florida. 
Soon the colonists were reduced to the verge of starva- 
tion.* They were on the point of leaving, when they were 

1 Coligny was an admiral of France, and a leader of the Hu'guenots, as the French 
Protestants wei'e then called. He had conceived a plan for founding an empire in 
America. This would furnish an asylum for his Huguenot friends, and at the same 
time advance the glory of the French. Thus religion and patriotism combined to 
induce him to send out colonists to the New World. 

- The Latiu for Charles is Carolus; hence the name Carolina. 

■■! The most feeble were landed in France. It is said that Queen Elizabeth first 
thought of colonizing the New World from conversing with the Huguenots sent to 
England. 

+ Their sufferings were horrible. Weat and emaciated, they fed themselves with 
roots, sorrel, pounded fish bones, and even roasted snakes. " Oftentimes," says Lau- 
donnifere, " our poor soldiers were constrained to give away the very shirts from their 
backs to get one tish. If at any time they showed mito the savages the excessive price 
which they took, these villains would answer them roughly : ' If thou make so great 



36 EARLY DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS Ll''6'> 

reeiiforced by Ribaut. The French now seemed fairly 
fixed on the coast of Florida. The Spaniards, however, 
claimed the country. Menendez, about this time, had made 
a settlement in St. Augustine. Leading an expedition 
northward through the wilderness, in the midst of a fear- 
ful tempest, he attacked Fort Carolina and massacred 
almost the entire population. Thus ended the attempt to 
establish a French colony in the Southeast. 

Champlain (sham plan'), at the beginning of the seven- 
teenth century, crossed the Atlantic in two pygmy barks — 
one of twelve, the other of fifteen tons — and ascended the 
St. Lawrence on an exploring tour. At Hochelaga all was 
changed. The Indian town had vanished, and not a trace 
remained of the savage population which Cartier saw there 
seventy years before.^ Champlain was overpowered by the 
charms of the New World, and longed to plant a French 
empii-e and the Catholic faith amid its savage wilds. 

De Monts (moN) received from the French king a grant 
of all the territory between the fortieth and forty-sixth 
parallels of latitude. This tract was termed Aca'dia, a 
name afterwards confined to New Brunswick and Nova 
Scotia. In 1605, with Champlain, he founded Port Royal 
(Nova Scotia), the first agricultural colony in America. 
Port Royal was soon abandoned, but a few years later, 
under other owners, it became a pei'manont settlement. 

Champlain made a second voyage to 2Vmeri(.'a in 1608, and 
established a trading post at Quebec. This was the first 
permanent French settlement in Canada. The next sum- 
mer, in his eager desire to explore the country, he joined a 
war party of the Ilurons against the Iroquois, or Five Na- 

account of thymerchaiidisc, eat it, aud wo will eatonr fisli ' ; then fell they out a lau^'h- 
in^, aud uiocked us with open throat." 

I This fact illustrates the frequeut aud rapid chaujces wlii( li tools place amons 
the ahoriu'inal tribes. 



1609] FRENCH EXPLORATIONS 37 

tions. On the banks of the beautiful lake which now bears 
his name, Champlain met and put to flight a band of Iro- 




CHAMl'LAIN FIGHTS THE IROQUOIS. 

quois. The Iroquois never forgot noi* forgave this defeat, 
and their enmity kept the French out of the present State 
of New York. Amid discouragements which would have 
overwhelmed a less determined spirit, Champlain firmly 
established the authority of France on the banks of the 
St. Lawrence. The " Father of New France," as he has 
been termed, reposes in the soil he won to civilization. 

The Jesuit Missionaries. — The explorers of the Lake 
region and the Mississippi valley were mostly Jesuit V 
priests. The French names which they gave still linger 
throughout that region. Their hope was to convert the 
Indians to the Christian faith. They pushed their way 

' The Society of JesuH is one of the faraoiis religious orders of the Roman Catholic 
Church. It was founded by St. Ignatius Loyo'Ia in 1540, and at one time numbered 
over 20,000. The Jesuits are noted for the zeal, learning, and skill which they have 
displayed in missionary and other religious work in all parts of the world. 



38 EARLY DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS [1668 

through the forest with unflagging energy. They paddled 
up the Ottawa River and carried their canoes across to the 
waters of Lake Huron. They traversed the Upper Lakes. 
In 1668 they founded the mission of Sault (soo) Sainte 
Marie, or St. Mary, the oldest European settlement in Michi- 
gan. Many of them were murdered by the savages ; some 
were scalped ; some were burned in resin fire ; some were 
scalded with boiling water. Yet as soon as one fell out 
of the ranks another sprang forward to fill the post. 

Father Marquette (mar ket') was one of these patient, in- 
defatigable pioneers of New France. Hearing from some 




MAHi^Cl.l IK' 



wandering Indians of a great river which they termed the 
" Father of Waters," he determined to visit it. In company 
with the explorer Joliet (zho lya'), he crossed Lake Michi- 
gan and Green Bay in a canoe, ascended Fox River, and 



1673] FRENCH EXPLORATIONS 39 

floated down the Wisconsin to the Mississippi (1673), and 
thence to the mouth of the Arkansas (ar'kan saw)/ 

La Salle (lah sahl') was educated as a Jesuit, but had 
left that order and had established a trading post at the 
outlet of Lake Ontario." Inflamed with a desire to find 
the mouth of the Mississippi, he made his way down the 
river (1682) to the Gulf of Mexico. He named the country 
Louisiana, in honor of Louis XIY., king of France. Re- 
turning to France, he made ready to plant a colony near 
the mouth of the Mississippi ; but when his ships arrived 
in the (rulf of Mexico they missed the mouth of the Mis- 
sissippi and landed the colonists on the shore of Texas. 
La Salle was murdered^ by some of his own men while on 
his way to the French settlements in the north. The 
Texas colony soon perished. 

French Claims on North America in 1700. — Before the 
close of the seventeenth century, the French had explored 
the St. Lawrence basin, including the Great Lakes and 
their tributary streams ; the Ohio and its chief branches ; 
and the Mississippi from the Falls of St. Anthony to the 
Gulf, while they claimed the whole basin of that river, ex- 
tending indefinitely westward. They had several settle- 
ments on the St. Lawrence, one at Biloxi on the Gulf, and 

1 Soon after his return, though in very poor health, he made a journey to an Indian 
village on the Illinois, to convert the natives tliere. On his way home again, while on 
Lake Michigan, he felt the approach of death, and with his two companions went 
ashore not far from the Marquette River. Patient and uncomplaining to the last, he 
died while at prayer. Years after, when the tempest raged and the Indian tossed 
on the angry waves, he would seek to still the storm by invoking the aid of the pious 
Marquette. 

-' This important post, with the lands adjacent, was granted him I)y the Freuch 
king in 1675. Before this time he had made an expedition into the country south of 
the Great Lakes, where he discovered the Ohio River and descended it as far as the 
site of Louisville. 

3 The work begun by La Salle, however, was bravely carried on by otlier French- 
men. Iberville (e bSr veel) founded Biloxi, near the mouth of the Mississippi (1699), 
and his brother Bienville (be ax veel') founded New Orleans (1718). 



40 EARLY DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS [1688 

had planted here and there in the wilderness missions and 
rude forts or trading posts — the beginnings of civilization. 
In 1688 New France possessed a population of 11,000. 













FRENCH EXri.ORATIONS IN NUKTU AMERICA TO 1700. 

COLLATERAL READING 

FiHko's Discovery of America, xol. ii. pp. 511-522; or Parkiuau's La Hulte and the 
Digeorery of the Clreat West, chap. xx. 



ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS 

We have seen how the Cabots, sailing under the English 
flag, discovered the American continent, exploring its coast 
from Labrador to Cape Tod. Though the English claimed 
the northern part of the continent by right of this discovery, 
yet for two generations the^^ paid little attention to it. 
In Queen Elizabeth's time, however, maritime enterprise 
was awakened, and English sailors cruised on every sea.^ 



' Sir Jolin TTawlfiiis cngaf,"'rt i" the slave trade, oarryinj? oarKoo.s of nejjrocs from 
Africa to sell to the Spaiiiards iu the West Indies. Soou, however, Eiijrlish sailors 



1576] ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS 41 

Like the other navigators of the day, they were eager 
to discover the northwest passage to India. 

Frob'isher made the first of these attempts to go north 
of America to Asia. Threading his perilous way among 
icebergs, he pushed into the little bay just north of Hud- 
son Strait (1576), and on a later voyage entered Hudson 
Strait itself. Next, John Davis pushed farther northwest 
and entered Davis Strait (1585). 

Sir Francis Drake was a famous sailor. In one of his 
expeditions on the Isthmus of Panama, he climbed to the 
top of a lofty tree, whence he saw the Pacific Ocean. 
Looking out on its broad expanse, he resolved to " sail an 
English ship on those seas." Returning to England, he 
equipped a small squadron. He sailed through the Strait 
of Magellan, and coasted along the Pacific shore to the 
southern part of Oregon. Having refitted his ship (1579), 
he sailed westward, and returned home hj way of the 
Capo of Good Hope. He was thus the first Englishman to 
explore the Pacific coast, and to circumnavigate the globe.^ 

Sir Humphrey Gilbert was not a sailor, but he bad 

be,can to rtispute with Spain tlie sovereiprnty of the sea, and English privateers — " sea 
doss," as they were called — began to rob the Spanish treasure ships whenever they 
could. The greed of gold, the love of adventure, a chivalrous contempt of danger, and 
tlie bitter hatred then existing between Protestant England and Catholic Spain, com- 
l)ined to inspire the sea dogs to the most daring deeds. 

1 This voyage was in large part a plundering expedition. Along the coast of Chile 
and Peru, Drake robbed towns as well as ships, and he captured the great galleon that 
yearly sailed thence to Spain with precious stones, gold dust, and silver ingots. 
When he reached Plym'outh, England, after an absence of three years, his ship was 
laden with treasure to the amount of £800,000. The queen received a large share of 
thu spoils, knighted the freebooter, wore his jewels in her crown, and ordered his' ship, 
the Golden Ilind, to be preserved in i:icmory of her remarkable voyage. Open war hav- 
ing at last broken out between England and Spain, Drake, Cav'endish, and other free- 
booters went to the West Indies and the " Spanish Main," — the southern coast of the 
Caribbean Sea,— plundering and burning villages, and capturing Spanish treasure 
ships on their way home from the New World. 

The English privateers, however, could fight for their country as well as for private 
gain, and Drake, Hawkins, and Frobislier were in the very front of the little fleet that 
destroyed the " Invincible Aruia'da" (1588) and broke the Spanish power. 



42 



EARLY DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS 



1583 



studied the accounts of American discoveries, and eon- 
eluded that, instead of random expeditions after gold and 
spices, companies should be sent out to form permanent 
settlements. His attempts to colonize the New World, 
however, ended in his own death. As he was sailing home 
(1583) in a bark of only ten tons' burden, in the midst of a 
fearful storm the light of his little vessel suddenly disap- 
peared. Neither ship nor crew was ever seen again. 





|j||L. . 




-j^ J 


k^^^MMm 


JsM 


.'', 


1^' ' .^^pV9^| 


wS^m^^i^^^k.- 






1 S* '^B^H 




OT 


B 


1 J^KKk 


JiJ^Hp" A 


01 


^Btm^- 


■J 


B 




^i:- 


'(-I 



RALKKiH AND TJIK yDEKN. 



Sir Walter Raleigh ' (raw'li), a half-brother of Gilbert, 
shared his views of American colonization. He easily 

1 Raleigh was not only a man of rtamitless courage, but lie also added to a hand- 
some person much learning and many accomplishments. Meeting Queen Elizabeth 
one day while she was walking, lie spread his mantle over a wet place in her path. 
81ie was so pleased with his gallantry that she admitted him to court, and he contin- 
ued a favorite during her entire lifetime. After her death he was accused by James 
I. of treason, was imprisoned for many years, and was finally executed. On tne scaf- 
fold ho asked for the ax, and, feeling the edge, observed with a smile, " This is a sharp 
medicine, but a .sound cure for all diseases." Then composedly laying his head on the 
block, and moving bis lips as in prayer, he gave the signal for the fatal blow. 



1584] ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS 43 

obtained from Queen Elizabeth a patent* of any remote 
lands not inhabited by Christians, which he might dis- 
cover within six years. In 1584 he sent an expedition 
which explored the coast of what is now North Carolina. 
This whole region was named Virginia in honor of Eliza- 
beth, the Virgin Queen. 

RaJeigJi's First Attempt to riant a Colony was on E-oanoke 
Island (map, p. 52). The settlers made no endeavor to 
cultivate the soil, but spent their time in hunting for gold 
and pearls. At last they were nearly starved, when Drake, 
happening to stop there on one of his voyages, took pity 
on them and carried them home. 

They had lived long enough in America to learn the use 
of tobacco from the Indians. This they introduced into 
England. The custom of " drinking tobacco," as it was 
called, soon became the fashion.^ 

RaleigWs Second Attempt. — Raleigh, undiscouraged by 
this failure, still clung to his colonizing scheme. The next 
time, he sent out families instead of single men. A grand- 
daughter of John White, the governor of the colony, was 
born soon after they reached Roanoke Island ; she was 
the first English child born in America (1587). The gov- 
ernor, on returning to England to secure supplies, found 
the public attention absorbed by the threatened attack of 
the Spanish Armada. It was four years before he was 
able to come back. Meanwhile his family, and the colony 
he had left alone in the wilderness, had perished: how, 
we do not know. 

Raleigh had now spent about $200,000, an immense sum 

1 A patent was a formal grant of land, with the right to plant colonies on it. 

- An amusing story is told of Raleigh while he was learning to smoke. One morn- 
ing a servant, on entering the room with a cup of ale for his master, saw a cloud of 
smoke Issuing from Raleigh's mouth. Frantically dashing the liquor in his master's 
face, he rushed downstairs, imploring help lest Sir Walter should be burned to ashes! 



44 EARLY DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS [1602 

for that day, on this American colony ; and, disheartened, 
he transferred his patent to other parties. 

Trading Voyages. — Fortunately for American interests, 
fishing and trading ventures were more profitable than 
colonizing ones. English vessels frequented the Banks 
of Newfoundland, and, probably, occasionally visited Vir- 
ginia. Bartholomew Gosnold,' a master of a small bark, 
discovered (1602) and named Cape Cod and Marthas Vine- 
yard. Loading his vessel with sassafras root, which was 
then highly esteemed as a medicine, he returned home to 
publish most favorable reports of the region. Some Eng- 
lish merchants accordingly sent out the next year two 
vessels under Captain Pring. He discovered several har- 
bors in Maine, and brought back cargoes of furs and 
sassafras. 

As the result of these various explorations, many felt an 
earnest desire to colonize the New World. James I. ac- 
cordingly granted two companies permission to found 
colonies in the vast territory of Virginia, as it was called. 

The South Virginia Company, called the London Com- 
pany because its principal men resided at London, was 
to have a block of land 100 miles square somewhere on 
the coast between the thirty-fourth and forty-first degrees 
of latitude. This company sent out a colony under 
Captain Newport. He made at elamestown,- in 1607, the 

1 The English sbips were iiccustoiiicd to nteor poiitbward as far aa tho Canary 
Islands ; theu they followed the track of Columbus to tho West ludies, and theuce past 
the coast of Florida northward to tlie point they wished to roach. Navigators knew 
this was a roundabout way, but they were afraid to try the northern route straislit 
across tho Atlantic. Cosnold made the voyage dlrrclUj from England to Massachu- 
setts, thus shortening the route 3000 miles. This gave a great impulse to colonization, 
since it was, in eff-ct, bringing America ;iOOO miU-s nearer England. 

•i The river was called James, and the town Jamestown, in honor of the king 
of England. Tho headlands at the mouth of the Chesapeake received the names of 
Cape Henry and Cape Charles from the king's eons, and tho deep water for 
anchorage, " which put the emigrants in good comfort," gave the name Point 
Comfort. 



1607J 



ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS 



45 



first permanent English settlement in the United States ^ 
(see map, p. 52). 

The North Virginia Company, called the Plymouth 
Company because its principal men resided at Plymouth, 
was to select a block 100 miles 
square on the coast between 
the thirty-eighth and forty- 
fifth degrees of latitude. 

The Charter ■ granted by the 
king to these two companies 
was the first under which Eng- 
lish colonies were planted in the 
United States. It is therefore 
worthy of careful study. It 





ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS IN NORTH AMERICA TO 1607. 

contained no idea of self-government. The people were 
not to have the election of an officer. The king was to 

1 About eighty years before tliis the Spaniards had tried to establish a colony in 
the same locality as Jamestown, but had failed. The attempt was made under De 
AylloD <da il yon ), who led thither 600 colonists, including some negro slaves who 
were to do the hard labor of the colony. But De Ayllon died of a fever, dissensions 
arose among his successors, many colonists perished on account of sicliness, exposure, 
and Indian attacks, and soon the survivors abandoned the country. 

2 A charter was a document which conferred the title to certain land, and, not unlike 
a constitution, defined the form of government and secured to the people certain 
rights and privileges: 



46 EARLY DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS [1609 

appoint a council to live in each colony and have control 
of its local affairs, and also a council to reside in London 
and have general control of both colonies. The king 
issued a long list of instructions to these councils. He 
ordered that the Church of England should be maintained 
in the colony, and that all the proceeds of the colony's in- 
dustry and commerce should go into a common fund, 
no person being allowed tlie fruit of his individual labor. 

COLLATERAL READING 
Fiebe's Old Virginia and her Xeighbours, vol. i. pp. 19, 20, 26-3.5, 38-40. 

DUTCH EXPLORATIONS 

During all this time the Dutch manifested no interest 
in the New World. In the beginning of the seventeenth 
century, however, Captain Henry Hudson, an English 
navigator in the Dutch service, entered Delaware Bay and 
the harbor of New York. Hoping to reach the Pacific 
Ocean, he ascended the noble river which bears his 
name (1609).' 

On this discovery the Dutch based their claim to the 
region extending from the Delaware River to Cape Cod. 
They gave to it the name of New Netlierland. 

CONFLICTING CLAIMS 

The Permanent Settlements. — At the close of the six- 
teenth century neither the English nor the French had 

I It is now believed tbat Verrazano (p. 34) was the true discoverer of this stream, 
over three quarters of a century before. Hudson later entered the English service, and 
sailed into Hudson Strait and Hudson Bay during an attempt to find the northwest 
passage. His explorations helped to make good the English claim to all the land drain- 
ing into these waters. His crew mutinied, set him and his son adrift in a rowboat, 
and left them to perish m the buy which l)ears his name. 



1G05J CONFLICTING CLAIMS 47 

planted a single enduring colony in America, and the 
only permanent settlements north of the Gulf of Mexico 
were those of the Spaniards at St. Augustine and Santa 
Fe. In the beginning of the seventeenth century perma- 
nent settlements multiplied. Settlements were made by 

The Feench at Port Royal (Nova Scotia), in 1605 ; 

The English at Jamestown, in 1607 ; 

The French at Quebec, in 1608 ; 

The Dutch at New Amsterdam (New York), in 1613 j^ 

The English at Plymouth, in 1620. 

The Conflicting Claims. — With the exception of the 
southeastern and southwestern parts of the United 
States, which were practically conceded to Spain, our 
whole country was claimed by each of the three nations, 
Spanish, French, and English;- and part of it also by 
the Dutch. All four nations succeeded in taking posses- 
sion of parts of the country, and therefore the bounda- 
ries of the different colonies were in dispute. While the 
first few settlements were separated by hundreds of miles 
of savage forests, this was of little account. But as the 
settlements increased, the conflicting claims became a 
source of constant strife and were decided finally by the 
sword. 

' *' Here lay the shaggy continent from Florida to the Pole, outstretched in savage 
slumber along the sea. On the hank of the James River was a uest of woebegone 
Englishmen, a handful of fur traders at the mouth of the Hudson, and a few shivering 
Frenchmen among the snowdrifts of Acadia ; while, deep within the wild monotony 
of desolation, on the icy verge of the great northern river, Champlain upheld the ban- 
ner of France over the rock of Quebec. These were the advance guard of civilization, 
the messengers of promise to a desert continent. Yet, not content with inevitable 
woes, they were rent by petty jealousies and miserable quarrels, while each little 
fragment of rival nationalities, just able to keep up its own wretched existence on a 
few square miles, begrudged to all the rest the smallest share in a domain which all 
the nations of Europe could not have sufiiced to fill."— Parkman. 

2 It is noticeable that the English grants extended westward to the Pacific Ocean ; 
the French, southward from the Bt. Lawrence to the Gulf; and the Spanish, north- 
ward to the Arctic Ocean. None of the European nations knew how immense was 
the territory it was granting. 



48 EARLY DISCOVERIES AND EXPLuKATIUNS 

TOPICAL ANALYSIS 



1. Geographical Knowledge in the 7'Mfteenth Century. 



2. Columbus. 



1. His Views. 

2. At Court of Portugal. 

3. At Court of Spain. 

4. His Success. 

5. His Equipment. 

6. His Voyage. 

7. His Discoveries. 

8. His Reception Home. 

9. Subsequent Voyages. 
10. His Mistake. 



3. How America was Named. 

4. The Cahots. 



1. John Cabot. 

2. Sebastian Cabot. 



Spanish Explorations. ■, 6. 



1. The Feeling in Spain. 

2. Ponce Je Leon. 

3. Balboa. 

4. Narvaez. 

5. Ferdinand de Soto. 
MeiiendfZ. 



7. Explorations on Pacific. 
[ 8. Spanish Claims in 1600. 



California. 
Coriniddo. 
Cubrillo. 
EsjM-jv. 



6. French Explorations. ■!, C 



Newfoundland Fisheries. 

Verrazano. 

Cartier. 

Ribaut. 

Laudonnifere. „....-, , i 

C a. Visit to Hochelag 
Champlain. < l>- FouikIh Quebec. 

( r. Vigil In Iroquois. 
7 De Monts and Port Royal 

.,,... S a. Their seat. 

8. Jesuit Missionaries. ^ ^ Marquette. 

9. La Salle. 

10. French Claims in 1700. 



7. English Explorations. 



1. English Claim and Maritime Zeal 

2. Frobisher and Davis. 

3. Francis Drake. 

4. Humphrey Gilbert. 



8. Dutch Explorations. 



5. Raleigh. 

6. Trading Voyages. 

7. Companies formed. 

< 1. Henry Hudson. 



a. Tries to plant Col- 

ony. 

b. Second atlempt. 

a. Loudon Co. 

b. Plymouth Co. 

c. Their Charter. 



i 9. Conflicting Claims. 



2. Dutch Claim. 

Permanent Settlements at the End of theSixteenth 
Century and the Beginning of the Seventeenth 
Century. 



2. Claims of 
Nations. 



the Four 



3. Result of these Conflicting ('lainis. 



a. The Spanish. 

b. The French, 
r. The Kiii/lish. 
d. The Dutch. 



EPOCH II.- DEVELOPMENT OF THE 
ENGLISH COLONIES 

This epoch traces the early history of the thirteen Eng- 
lish colonies — Virginia, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, 
Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York, New Jersey, Penn- 
sylvania, Delaware, Maryland, North Carolina, South Caro- 
lina, and Georgia, The Cavaliers land in Vii-ginia and 
the Puritans in Massachusetts. Immigration increases, 
and the settlements multiply along the whole coast. The 
country is settled mainly by immigrants from Great 
Britain ; for most of the colonies are founded as English 
dependencies, and the others soon become so. The col- 
onies, however, have little history in common. Each by 
itself struggles with the wilderness, contends with the 
Indian, and develops the principles of liberty. 

I. VIRGINIA 

The Character of the first Jamestown colonists was poorly 
adapted to endure the hardships incident to life in a new 
country. The settlers — about 100 in number — were 
mostly men of gentle birth, unused to labor. They had 
no families, and came out in search of wealth and adven- 
ture, expecting, when rich, to return to England. The 
climate was unhealthful, and before the first autumn half 
of them had perished, including Gosnold, one of their 
leaders. 

B. HIST. D. S.— 4 49 



50 



THE TllIKTEEX COLONIES 



[IGu: 



John 
ber of t 




Smith ' saved the eolouy from ruin. First as a mem- 
he council, and afterwards as president, he rendered 

invahia])le service. 
He persuaded the 
settlers to build log 
huts for the winter. 
He made long voy- 
at;es, carefully ex- 
ploring Chesapeake 
Bay, securing the 
friendship of the 
Indians, and bring- 
ing back boatloads 
of supplies. He 
trained the tender 
irentlemeu till they 
learned how to 
swing the ax in the 
forest. He declared that '' he who would not work might 
not eat." He taught them that industry and self-reliance 
are the surest guarantees to fortune. 

Smith's Adroifures were of the most romantic character. 

1 Captain John Smitb was bum to adventure. WMle yet a boy be left bis bome 
in Lineolnsliire, England, to cuiragc in Holland wars. Later we bear of bini on bis 
way to fiffbt tbe Turks. In Franee be is i-obbed, and escapes death from want only 
by begfiing alms. At sea a fearful storm arises; be, being a heretic, is deemed the 
cause, and is tbrowa overboard, but be swims to land. Di the East a famous Mus- 
sulman wishes to fight some Christian kni;[:bt " to please tbo ladies"; Smith oflfers 
himself, and slays three cbauji>ions in succession! Taken prisoner in battle and sold 
as a slave, bis head is shaved and his neck bound with an iron ring; he kills his 
master, arrays himself in the dead man's garments, mounts a horse, and spurs bis 
way to a Russian camp. Having returned to England, be embarks for the New 
World. On the voy.-ige he excites the jealousy of bis fellows, and is landed in chains, 
but his worth becomes so apparent that be is linally made president of the colony. 
These and many other woiiilerfnl exploits be tells in a book pnblished after his return 
to Englanil. Many historians discredit them. However, bis services were of unques- 
tionable value to Virginia, and bis disinterestedness appears from tbe fact that he 
never received a foot of land in the colony his wisdom bad saved. 



<MITII allows HIS (OMPASS. 



1607] 



VIRGINIA 



51 



In one of his expeditions up the Chiekahom'iny^ he was 
taken prisoner by the ludiaus. With singular coohiess, 
he immediately tried to interest his captors by explaining 
the use of his pocket compass, and the motions of the 
moon and stars. At last they allowed him to write a 
letter to Jamestown. When thej^ found that this informed 
his friends of his misfortune, they were filled with aston- 
ishment. They could not understand by what magical 
art he made a few marks on paper express his thoughts. 
They considered him a being of a superior order, and 
treated him with the utmost respect. He was carried to the 
gi'eat chief, the Powhatan', by whom he was condemned 
to die. His head was laid on a stone, and the huge war- 
club of the Indian executioner was raised to strike the 
fatal blow. Suddenly Pocahon'tas, the young daughter 
of the chief, who had already become attached to the pris- 
oner, threw herself upon his neck and pleaded for his 
pardon.- The favorite of the tribe was given her desire. 



1 This was undertaken by 
the express order of tbe com- 
pany to seek a passage to tbe 
Pacitic Ocean and thus to In- 
dia. Captain Newport, hefore 
his return to England, made a 
trip up the James River for 
the same purpose ; and Henry 
Hudson was searching for a 
passage to India when he 
ascended Delaware Bay and 
Hudson River. The igno- 
rance of that age regarding 
the shape and extent of North 
America is shown by this map, 
the shaded parts of which represent a map made for Sir Philip Sidney in 1582. The 
map also illustrates why the existence of a short strait between the Atlantic and 
Pacific in Virginia was thought possible. 

2 This incident has been discredited by many historians because Smith did not 
mention it in his first account (1G08) of his adventures, but describes it in the second 
one, published sixteen years later. But his first account is known to be incomplete, 
&nd this conduct of Pocahontas was entirely in accord with Indian usage. 




X ^ — ^ ,' \<,' , 'BAHAMA 

^7.'; Yucatan;, .viCSSj^'.^lfPAfiOLA 



52 THE TIIIKTEEN COLONIES [1609 

Smith was sent home with promises of friendship. His 
little protector was often thereafter to be seen going to 
Jamestown with baskets of corn for the white men. 

A Second Charter (1609) was soon obtained by the Lon- 
don Company. This 
vested the local au- 
thority in a governor 
instead of a local coun- 
cil. Thecolonistswere 
not consulted with re- 
gard to the change, nor 
did the charter guar- 
antee to them any 
rights. The new char- 
ter greatly enlarged 
the boundaries of the 
colony, which was now 
to extend along the 
coast 200 miles each 
way from Point Com- 
fort, and thence across the continent " from sea to sea, 
west and northwest." ' 

The '* Starving Time." — Many more colonists had ar- 
rived from England, but now, unfortunately. Smith was 
disabled by a severe wound and compelled to return. 
His influence being removed, the settlers became a prey 
to disease and famine. Some were killed by the In- 
dians. Some, in their despair, seized a boat and became 
pirates. The winter of 1609-10 was long known as the 
" Starving Timo." In six months the colonists were re- 
duced from 490 to 60. At last they determined to flee from 
the wretched place. " None dropped a tear, for none had 

1 Probably from the Atlantic to the Sea of Verrazauo was meant (sec note, p. 51). 




VIRGINIA BY THE CHARTER OF 1609. 



1610] VIRGINIA 53 

enjoyed one day of happiness." The next morning, as they 
slowly moved down with the tide, to their great joy they 
met their new governor, Lord Delaware, with abundant 
supplies and a company of immigrants. All returned to 
the homes they had just deserted, and Jamestown colony 
was once more saved from ruin. 

The Third Charter.— Up to this time the colony had 
proved a failure and was publicly ridiculed in London. 
To quiet the outcry, the charter was changed (1612). The 
management of the colony had previously been in the 
hands of the council in London ; Ijut now the stockholders 
were given power to meet frequently and regulate the 
affairs of the company themselves. 

The Marriage of Pocahontas (1614).— The little Indian 
girl had now grown to womanhood. John Rolfe, a young 
English planter, had won her love and wished to marry 
her. In the little church at Jamestown, rough almost as 
an Indian's wigwam, she received Christian baptism, and, 
in broken English, repeated the marriage vows according 
to the service of the Church of England.' 

First Colonial Assembly. — Grovernor Yeardley believed 
that the colonists should have " a hande in the governing 
of themselves." In obedience to the company's instruc- 
tions, he called at Jamestown, July 30, 1619, the first 
legislative body that ever assembled in America. It 
consisted of the governor, the council, and two deputies, 
or " burgesses," as they were called, chosen from each of 
the eleven settlements, or " boroughs," into which Virginia 
was then divided. The privilege of self-government was 

1 Two years after, she visited London with her husband. The childlike simplicity 
and winning grace of Lady Rebecca, as she was called, attracted universal admiration. 
She was introduced at court and received every mark of attention. As she was about 
to return to her native land with her husband and iufant son, she suddenly died. Her 
son became a man of distinction. Many of the leading families of Virginia have 
been proud to say that the blood of Pocahontas coursed through their veins. 



54 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 



[1621 



afterwards (1621) embodied iii a written constitution — 
the first of the kind in America — granted by the com- 
pany under tlie leadership of Sir Edwin Sandys. The 
laws passed by the colonial assembly had to be ratified 
by the company in London ; but the orders from Lon- 
don were not binding unless ratified by the colonial as- 
sembly. A measure of freedom was thus granted the 
colony, and Jamestown became a nursery of liberty. 

Prosperity of the Colony. — The old famine troubles had 
now all passed. The attempt to work in common had 
been given up, and each man tilled his own land and 




TIIK LANDING OF THE WO.MEN. 



received the profits. Tobacco was the chief article of 
export; its sale made the colony prosperous. The colo- 
nists wore so eager in its cultivation that at one time 
they planted it even in the streets of Jamestown. Gold 



1621] VIRGIiSIIA 55 

hunting bad ceased/ and many of the former servants of 
the company owned plantations. Settlements lined both 
banks of the James for 140 miles. Best of all, young 
women of good character were brought over by the com- 
pany and were sold as wives to the settlers. The price 
at first was fixed at the cost of the passage, — 120 pounds 
of tobacco, — but wives were in such demand that it soon 
went up to 150 pounds. Domestic ties were formed. 
The colonists, having homes, now became Virginians. 
All freemen had the right to vote, and Virginia became 
almost an independent republic. The population was 
about 4000 (1622). 

Slavery Introduced. — In 1019 the captain of a Dutch 
trading vessel sold to the colonists twenty negroes." They 
were employed in cultivating tobacco. As their labor was 
found profitable, large numbers wei'e afterwards imported. 
For a time, however, the negroes were less numerous than 
white servants, who were sold for a term of years, either 
as a punishment or (with the servant's consent) as a 
means of paying for the passage across the sea. Some- 
times children and even adults were kidnaped, shipped 
to America, and sold in this way. 

Indian Troubles. — After the death of the Powhatan, the 
firm friend of the English, the Indians secretly formed 
a plan for the extermination of the colony. At a precon- 
certed moment they attacked the colonists (March 22, 
1622) on all their widely scattered plantations. About 350 
men, women, and children fell in one day. Fortunately, 



1 In the early life of tins colony, particles of mica glitterius in a brook were mis- 
taken for gold (lust. Newport ciirriert to England a shipload of the worthless stuff. 
Smith remonstrated in vain against this folly. 

2 From this circumstance, small as It seemed at the time, the most momentous 
consequences ensued — consequences that, long after, rent the republic with strife 
and moistened its soil with blood. 



56 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES [1622 

a converted Indian had informed a friend whom he wished 
to save, and thus Jamestown and the settlements near by 
were prepared. A merciless war ensued, during which 
the Indians were so severely punished that they remained 
quiet for twenty years. Then came a massacre of 300 
settlers (1G44), followed by a short war which ended in 
the natives being exjDelled from the region. 

Virginia a Royal Province. — The majority of the stock- 
holders had gladly granted to the infant colony those rights 
for which they themselves were struggling at home. King 
James, becoming jealous of the company because of its 
republican sentiments, took away the charter (1624) and 
made Virginia a royal province; that is, the company was 
deprived of all control over the colony, which now passed 
under the immediate control of the king. Henceforth the 
king appointed the governor and council, though the col- 
ony still I'ctained its assembly. 

During and after the struggle between Charles I. and 
the Puritans in England, many of the Royalists or Cav- 
aliers emigrated to Virginia. Yet the colony promptly 
surrendered to the officers sent over by the victorious 
Commonwealth, and during this period it enjoyed increased 
freedom of self-government. 

A Period of Oppression. — After the Restoration of Charles 
II. (1660) the English Parliament enforced the Navi- 
gation Act, which ordered that the commerce of the 
colony should be carried on only in English vessels, and 
that its tobacco should be shi])ped only to England. 
Besides this, the colonial assembly was composed mainly 
of Royalists, who levied exorbitant taxes, refused to go out 
of office when their term had expired, fixed their salary at 
a high figure, restricted the right of voting to " fi-eehold- 
ers and housekeepers," and imposed on Quakers a monthly 



1676] VIRGINIA, MASSACHUSETTS 57 

fine of one hundred dollars for absence from worship in 
the English Church. Two parties gradually sprang up in 
the colony : one, the aristocratic party, was composed of 
the rich planters and the officeholders; the other com- 
prised the liberty-loving portion of the people, who felt 
themselves deprived of their rights. 

Bacon's Rebellion. — These difficulties came to a crisis in 
1676 — a century before Independence Day — when Gov- 
ernor Berkeley failed to provide for the defense of the 
settlements against the Indians. At this juncture Na- 
thaniel Bacon, a patriotic young man, rallied a company, 
defeated the Indians, and then turned to meet the gov- 
ernor, who had denounced him as a traitor. During the 
contest which followed, Berkeley was driven out of James- 
town and the village itself was burned.^ In the midst of 
this success Bacon died. No leader could be found worthy 
to take his place, and the people dispersed. Berkeley re- 
venged himself with terrible severity. On hearing of the 
facts, Charles II. impatiently declared : " He has taken 
more lives in that naked country than I did for the mur- 
der of my father ! " 

COLLATERAL READINGS 

Smith and Pocahontas.— Fiske's Old Yirgniift, vol. i. pp. 80-fln, 100-111. 
Virginia in 1684.— Fiske's Old Virginia, vol. i. pp. 223-231, 243-250. 

II. MASSACHUSETTS 

The Plymouth Company (p. 45) failed in an attempt to 
establish a settlement in North Virginia (1607). A few 
years later Captain John Smith examined the coast from 

1 GoiDg up the James River, just before reaching City Point, one sees near the right- 
hand bank the site of the first English settlement in Virginia. Part of an old church 
tower, with a few weather-beaten tombstones near by, is all that remains of the 
ancient village of Jamestown. The church itself, however, was rebuilt in the year 
11)07. 



58 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 



[IGiiO 



the Penobscot to Cape Cod, drew a map of it, aud called 
the country New England. The company, stirred to 
action by his glowing accounts, obtained a new patent 
(1620) under the name of the Council for New England. 
This authorized them to make settlements and carry on 
trade through a region reaching from 40° to 48° north lati- 




N1.W KN(iI,ANl) BV Till; PATENT OF 1G20. 



VICINITY OF BOSTON. 



tude, and westward from sea to sea. As we shall see, 
however, New England was first settled without consent 
of king or council. 

I. PLYMOUTH COLONY 

Settlement. — LfDidiiig of the r'/lf/riiiis.^ — One stormy 
day in the autumn of 1620, the Maijtioiccy^ with a band of 
a hundred and two Pilgrims, men, women, and children, 

'Tbey wore called Pilgrims boean.so of their wanderings. About seventy years 
before this time the state religion of England had been changed from Catholic to 
Protestant : but a large number of the clergy aud people were dissatietied with what 



1620J 



MASSACHUSETTS 



59 



came to anchor in Cape Cod harbor. The little company, 
gathering in the cabin, drew up a compact, in which they 




THE JIAYFLOWKR lO.Ml'ACT. 

they thouiEjht to be a halfway change on the part of the new church, and called for a 
more coiuplete purification from old oliservances and doctrines. For this they wcro 
called Puritans. They still believed in a state church, but wanted the goveruiuent to 
make certain changes in it. The government not only refused, but punished the 
Puritan clergy for not using the prescribed form of worship. This led some of them to 
question the authority of the government in religious matters. They came to believe 
that any body of Christians might declare itself a church, choose its own officers, and 
be independent of all external authority. Those who formed such local churches 
separated themselves from the Church of England, and hence were called Separatists. 
One church of Separatists was at Scrooby, in the cast of England. Not being allowed 
to worship in peace, they fled to Ilolland (1608). But thej" were unwilling to have their 
children grow up as Dutchmen, and longed for an English laud where they might 
worship God in their own way. America offered such a home. They came, resolved 
to brave every danger, trusting to God to shape their destinies. 



60 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES [1620 

agreed to enact just and equal laws, which all should obey. 
One of theu' exploring parties landed at Plj^mouth,' as it 
was called on Smith's chart, December 21.- Finding the 
location suitable for a settlement, the men all came ashore 
and, amid a storm of snow and sleet, began building rude 
log houses. 

The Pilgrims had intended to settle in what is now 
New Jersey, in the territory controlled by the London 
Company, from which they had procured a patent. 
Stormy weather prevented the Mayfloifer from going 
there, and the Pilgrims settled at Plymouth without wait- 
ing for permission to do so. Later the Council for New 
England gave them several grants of land. 

The Character of the Pilgrims was well suited to the 
rugged, stormy land which they sought to subdue. They 
had come into the wilderness with their famihes in search 
of a homo where they could educate their children and 
worship God as they pleased. They were earnest, sober- 
minded men, actuated in all things by deep religious 
principle, and never disloyal to their convictions of duty. 

Their Sufferings during the winter were severe. At one 
time there were only seven well persons to take care of 
the sick. Half of the little band died. Yet when spring 
came, and the Majiflowcr set sail iov England, not one of 
the Pilgrims thought of returning with her. 

I Tho little shixllop sent out to rccoiinoitor licfore laiKlinj; lost, in a fiii-ions storm, 
its niddiT, mast, and f^ail. Lato at uight the party sought sholter undt-r the lee of a 
small islaud. Every hour was precious, as the season was lato and their com- 
panions in the Mdyjtower were waiting their return ; but " being y^' last day of y week, 
they prepared there to keepe ye Sabbath." No wonder that the inflnenee of such a 
people has been felt throughout the country, and that "Forefathers' Rock." on which 
they first stepped, is yetludd in grateful remembrance. 

•-'This was December 11, Old Stylo. In 17!)2 eleven days were added to correct an 
iucreasiug error in the calendar, so Forefathers' Day is observed on the 22d. Bat in 
1620 the error iu the calendar was only ten days instead of eleven, and the correct date 
is the 21st, New Style. (Steele's " Popular Astronomy," p. 285.) 



1621] MASSACHUSETTS 61 

The Indians, fortunately, did not disturb them. A pesti- 
lence had destroyed the tribe inhabiting the place where 
they landed. They were startled, however, one day in 
early spring, by a voice in their village crying in broken 
English, " Welcome ! " It was the salutation of Sam'oset, 
an Indian, whose chief, Mas'sasoit, soon after visited them. 
The treaty then made lasted for fifty years. Canoii'icus, a 
Narragansett chief, once sent a bundle of arrows, wrapped 
in a rattlesnake skin, as a token of defiance. Governor 
Bradford returned the skin filled with powder and shot. 
This significant hint was effectual.^ 

The Progress of the Colony was at first slow. The set- 
tlers' harvests were insufficient to feed themselves and the 
newcomers. During the "famine of 1623" the best dish 
thej^ could set before their friends was a bit of fish and a 
cup of water. After four years they numbered only 184. 
The plan of working in common having failed here as at 
Jamestown, land was assigned to each settler. Abundance 
ensued. The colony was never organized by royal charter, 
but the king left them in peace to elect their own gov- 
ernor and make their own laws. In 1692 Plymouth was 
united with Massachusetts Bay Colony, of which it there- 
after formed a part. 

2. MASSACHUSETTS BAY COLONY 

Settlement. — John Endicott and five associates ob- 
tained (1628) from the Council for New England a grant 
of land between and including the mouths of the Merri- 
mac and Charles rivers, and thence west across the conti- 
nent from sea to sea. Having secured from King Charles I. 

1 Anotber reason why Plymouth bad no disastrous conflict with Indians was the 
ability and bravery of Miles Standish, who acted as military head of the little colonj . 
He was one of the mainstays of the colony, though be was not of the same religious 
faith ^s the Pilgrims. ' 



62 



THE TlllKTKEN t'OLOME.S 



[1G30 



a charter giving authority to make laws and govern the 
territory, the company afterwards transferred all its rights 
to the colony. This was a popular measure, and many 
prominent Puritan families flocked to the land of liberty. 
Some, under the leadership of Endicott, settled at Salem 
and Charlestown ; some established colonies at Dorchester 




KOGEU WILLIAMS FLEES TO TUi: FOREST. 



and Watertown ; and some, under the new governor, Wiu- 
throp, founded Boston (I60O). 

Religious Disturbances. — The people of Massachusetts 
Bay, while in England, were Puritans, but not Separatists. 
Having come to America to establish a Puritan church, 
they were unwilling to receive persons holding opinions 
differing from their own, lest their purpose should be 



iG3G] MASSACHUSETTS 63 

defeated. They accordingly seut back to England those 
who persisted in using the forms of the Established 
Chnreh, and allowed only members of their own church 
to vote in civil affairs. 

Rof/er WlUiams, an eloquent and pious young minister, 
taught that each person should think for himself in all 
religious matters, and be responsible to his own conscience 
alone. He declared that the magistrates had, therefore, 
no right to punish blasphemy, jierjury, or Sabbath-break- 
ing. The clergy and magistrates were alarmed at what 
they considered a doctrine dangerous to the peace of the 
colony, and he was ordered (1636) to be sent to England. 
It was in the depth of winter, yet he fled to the forest, 
and found refuge among the Indians. Canonicus, the 
Narragansett sachem, gave him land to found a settle- 
ment, which he gratefully named Providence. 

3Irs. Anne Hutch in sou, during the same year, aroused a 
violent and bitter controversy. She claimed to be favored 
with special revelations of God's will. These she ex- 
pounded to crowded congregations of women, greatly to 
the scandal of many Puritans. Finally she also was 
banished. 

The Quakers, aliont twenty years after these summary 
measures, created fresh trouble by their peculiar views. 
They were fined, whipped, imprisoned, and sent out of 
the colony; yet they as constantly returned, glorying in 
their sufferings. At last four were executed. The people 
beginning to sympathize with them as martyrs, the per- 
secution gradually relaxed. 

A Union of the Colonies of Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, 
New Haven, and Connecticut (sec p. 69) was formed (1643) 
under the title of the United Colonies of New England. 
This famous league lasted more than forty years. The 



64 THE THIRTEEN CULONIES [1675 

object was protection agaiust the Indians and against the 
encroachments of the Dutch and French settlers. 

King Philip's War. — During the life of Massasoit, Plym- 
outh enjoyed peace with the Indians, as did Jamestown dur- 
ing the life of the Powhatan. After Massasoit's death, his 
son Philip brooded with a jealous eye over the encroach- 
ments of the whites. With profound sagacity he planned 
a confederation of the Indian tribes against the intruders. 
The first blow fell on the people of Swansea, as they were 
quietly going home from church on Sunday, July 4, 1G75. 
The settlers flew to arms, but Philip escaped, and soon 
excited the savages to fall upon the settlements in the 
Connecticut valley. The colonists fortified their houses 
with palisades, carried their arms with them into the fields 
when at work, and stacked them at the door when at 
church. The Narragansett Indians favored Philip, and 
seemed on the point of joining his alliance. They had 
gathered their winter's provisions, and fortified themseh^es 
in the midst of an almost inaccessible swamp. Fifteen 
hundred of the colonists accordingly attacked and de- 
stroyed this stronghold. In the spring the war broke out 
anew along a frontier of three hundred miles, and to 
within twenty miles of Boston. Nowhere fighting in the 
open field, but by ambuscade and skulking, the Indians 
kept the whole country in teiTor. Driven to desperation 
by their atrocities, the settlers hunted down the savages 
like wild beasts. Philip was chased from one hiding place 
to another. His family being captured at last, he fled, 
broken-hearted, to his old home on Mount Hope, Rhode 
Island, where he was shot by a faithless Indian. 

New England a Royal Province. — The Navigation Act 
(p. 56), which we have seen so unpopular in Virginia, was 
exceedingly oppressive in Massachusetts, which had a 



1684] MASSACHUSETTS 65 

thriving commerce. In spite of the decree, the colony 
opened a trade with the West Indies. The Royalists in 
England determined that this bold republican spirit 
should be quelled. The colony, stoutly insisting upon its 
rights under the charter, resisted the commissioners 
sent over to enforce the Navigation Act and the author- 
ity of the king; whereupon the charter was annulled 
and Massachusetts was made a royal province (1684). 
Charles II. died before his plan was completed, but his 
successor, James II., sent over Sir Edmund Andros as 
first royal governor of all New England (1686). Gov- 
ernor Andros carried things with a high hand. The 
New England colonies endured his oppression for three 
years, when, learning that his royal master was de- 
throned,^ the people rose against their petty tyrant and 
put him in jail. With true Puritan sobriety, they then 
quietly resumed their old forms of government. In 
Massachusetts, however, this lasted for only three years, 
when Sir William Phips came as royal governor over a 
province embracing Massachusetts, Plymouth, Maine, and 
Nova Scotia. From this time till the Revolution the 
enlarged colony of Massachusetts Bay was governed 
under a new charter ; but as its governor was appointed 
by the king, it was in some respects a royal province. 
There were many disputes between the governor and the 
colonial assembly, or "general court," as it was called, 
over the rights and powers claimed by each. 

Salem Witchcraft (1692). — A strange delusion known as 
the Salem witchcraft" produced an intense excitement. 

'The "English Revolulion of 1688" resulted in the deposition of James II., the 
Stuiut king, and the enthroueuient of William and Mary. 

■- A belief in •witchcraft was at that time universal. Sir Matthew Hale, one of the 
most eulightened judges of Ensland, repeatedly tried and condemned persons accused 
of witchcraft. Blackstone himself, at a later day, declared that to deny witchcraft 
B. HIST u. s.— 5 



GO THE TIIIkTHKX COI.OX I KS [WJ'2 

The childreu of a mitiister near Salem performed pranks 
which could bo explained only by supposing that they 
were under Satanic influence. Every effort was made to 
discover who had bewitched them. An Indian servant 
was flogged until she admittetl herself to be guilty. Soon 
others were affected, and the teri'ible mania spread rapidly. 
Committees of examination wore appointed and courts of 
trial wore convened. The most inipi-ol)ablo stories were 
credited. To express a doubt of witchcraft was to iudicjite 
one's own alliance with the evil spirit. Persons of the 
highest respectability — clergynjon, magistrates, and even 
the governor's wife — were implicated. At last, after fifty- 
five j)ersons had beou tortui'od and twenty hanged, the 
people awoke to their folly, and the persecution ceased. 

III. MAINE AND NEW HAMPSHIRE 

Maine and New Hampshire woio so intimately associated 
with Massachusetts that they have almost a common his- 
tory. Gorges (gor'jez) and Mason, about two years after 
the lauding of the Pilgrims, obtained from the Council for 
New England the grant of a largo tract of land which lay 
between the Merrimac and Kennebec rivers. They estab- 
lished some small fishing stations at Dover and near 
Portsmouth, at the mouth of the Piscat'aqua Rivoi-. This 
patent being afterwards dissolved. Mason took the country 
lying west of the Piscataqua, and named it Now Hamp- 
shire; Gorges took that lying east, aii<l called it the prov- 

was to deny rovolation. Cuttou Mather, the most proniiiieiit minister of the colony, 
was aetive in the rootinjjout of tliis siipposed crime. lie puhlislied a hook full of the 
most ridiculous witch stories. One jndjre wh<» eiifra.ned in this jierseeution was after- 
wards so deeply jienitent that he ohserved a day of fastin;; in each year, and on the day 
of Keneral fast rose in his place in the Old .South Church at Ihjston. and in the presence 
of the eou{.rrevration handed to the pulpit a written confession ackuowlediring his error 
and praying for forgiveness. 



1G77] NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 67 

iiico of Maine.' Massachusetts, however, claimed this ter- 
ritory, and, to secure it, paid about six thousand dollars 
to the heirs of Gorges. Maine was not separated from 
Massachusetts till 1820. The feeble settlements of New 
Hampshire also placed themselves under the protection 
of Massachusetts. " Three times, either by their own con- 
sent or by royal authority, they were joined in one colony, 
and as often separated," until 1741, when New Hampshire 
finally became a distinct royal province ; and it so remained 
until the Revolution. 

IV. CONNECTICUT 

Settlement. — About eleven years after the Pilgrims 
landed, Lord Say-and-8eal, Lord Brooke, and others, 
obtained from the Earl of Warwick a transfer of the grant 
of the Connecticut valley, which he had secured from the 
Council for New England. The Dutch claimed the terri- 
tory, and, before the English could take possession, built 
a fort at Hartford, and commenced traffic with the Indians. 
Some traders from Plymouth sailing up the river were 
stopped by the Dutch, who threatened to fire upon them. 
But they kept on and established a post at Windsor. 
Many people from Boston, attracted by the rich meadow 
lands, settled near. In the autumn of 1635, John Steele, 
one of the proprietors of Cambridge, led a pioneer com- 
pany "out west," as it was then called, and laid the 
foundations of Hartford. The next year the main band, 
with their pastor, — Thomas Hooker, an eloquent and 
estimable man, — came, driving their flocks before them 



' To distinisniish it from tlie islands along the coast, this country had been called 
tbo Maync (uiaiu) laud, wliicli pcrbjips pvve rise to its present name. New Hamp- 
shire was so called from Hampshire in England, Mason's home. 



68 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 



[1635 



through the wilderness. In the meantime, John Win- 
throp ' established a fort at the mouth of the river, and 




HOOKER'S BAND ON THE WAV TO CONNECTICUT. 

thus shut out the Dutch. The fort was named Saybrook, 
in honor of the proprietors. 

The Pequot War. — The colonists had no sooner become 
settled in their new home than the Pequot Indians en- 
deavored to persuade the Narragansetts to join them in a 
general attack upon the whites. Roger Williams, hearing 
of this and forgetting all the injuries he had received, on 
a stormy night set out in his canoe for the Indian village. 

' .John Winthrop appears in history ■without blemish. Highly educated aud aecom- 
plished, he was no less upright and generous. In the bloom of life, he left his brilliant 
prospects in the Old World to follow the fortunes of the New. When his father had 
made himself poor in nurturing The Massachusetts colony, this noble son gave up 
voluntarily his own largo inheritance to " further the good work." It was through his 
personal influence and popularity at court that the liberal charter was procured from 
Charles II. which guaranteed freedom to Connecticut (p. 69). 



1637J CONNECTICUT 65) 

Though the Pequot messengers were present, he prevailed 
upon the old Narragansett chief to remain at home. So 
the Pequots lost their ally and were forced to fight alone. 
They commenced by murdering thirty colonists. Captain 
Mason, therefore, resolved to attack their stronghold on 
the Mystic River. His party approached the fort at day- 
break (June 5, 1G37). Aroused by the barking of a dog, 
the sleepy sentinel shouted, " Owanux ! Owanux ! " (The 
Englishmen!), but it was too late. The troops were 
already within the palisades. The Indians, rallying, made 
a fierce resistance, when Captain Mason, seizing a fire- 
brand, hurled it among the wigwams. The flames quickly 
swept through the encampment. The English themselves 
barely escaped. The few Indians who fled to the swamps 
were hunted down. The tribe perished in a day. 

The Three Colonies. — 1. The New Haven Colony was 
founded (1638) by a number of wealthy London families. 
They took the Bible for law, and only church members 
could vote. 2. The Connecticut Colony proper, com- 
prising Hartford, Wethersfield, and Windsor, adopted a 
written constitution in which it was agreed to give to all 
freemen the right to vote. This was the first instance in 
history of a written constitution framed by the people for 
the people. 3. The Saybeook Colony was at first gov- 
erned by the proprietors, but was afterwards sold to the 
Connecticut Colony. This reduced the three colonies to 
two. 

A Royal Charter was obtained (1662) which added the 
New Haven Colony to Connecticut, granted in addition a 
strip of land lying south of Massachusetts and extending 
west across the whole continent, and guaranteed to all 
settlers the rights upon which the Connecticut colonists 
had agreed. This was a precious document, since it gave 



70 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES [1G87 

them almost independence, and was the most favorable 
yet granted to any colony. Twenty-five years after, Gov- 
ernor Andros, marching from Boston over the route where 
the pious Hooker had led his little flock fifty years before, 
came " glittering with scarlet and laee " into the assembly 
at Hartford, and demanded the charter. A protracted 
debate ensued. Tradition loves to relate that, as the 
people crowded around to take a last look at this guaran- 
tee of tlieir liberties, suddenly the lights were extin- 
guished; on their being relighted, the charter was gone; 
Captain Wadsworth had seized it, escaped through the 
crowd, and hidden it in th(i hollow of a tree, famous ever 
after as the Charter Oak.' However, Andros pronounced 
the charter government at an end. "Finis" was written 
at the close of the minutes of the assembly's last meeting. 
When the governor was so summarily deposed in Bos- 
ton (p. 65), the people brought the charter from its hiding 
place, the assembly reconvened, and the " finis " disap- 
peared. In fact, Connecticut governed itself under tliis 
charter till long after the Revolution. 

V. RHODE ISLAND 

Settlement. — Roger Williams settled Providence Planta- 
tion in 1(136, the year in which Hooker came to Hartford. 
Other exiles from Massacthusetts f()llowed,2 among them 
the celebrated Mrs. Hutchinsc^n. A party of these })ur- 
chased the island of Aquiday (Rhode Island) and estab- 
lished the Rhode Island Plantation. Roger Williams 

'The story of the Charter Oak is denied by some, who claim that contemporary 
history docs not mention it, and that probably Andros seized the charter, while the 
colonists bad previously made a copy. 

-Persecuted refugees from every quarter flocked to Providence; and Williams 
shared equally with all the lan<ls he h;id olitained, reserving to himself only two 
small tiehls which, on his first arrival, he had planted with Lis own hands. 



1647] KHODE ISLAND, NEW YORK 71 

stamped upon these colonies his favorite idea of religious 
toleration, i.e. that the civil power has no right to inter- 
fere with the religious opinions of men. 

Charters. — The colonists wished to join the New Eng- 
land Union, ])ut were refused, ostensibly on the plea that 
they had no charter. Williams accordingly visited Eng- 
land and obtained a charter uniting the two plantations. 
On his return, the people met, elected their officers, and 
(1647) agreed on a set of laws guaranteeing freedom of 
faith and worshiji to all — " the first legal declaration of 
liberty of conscience ever adopted in Europe or America." 
This colony, however, was never admitted to the New 
England Union. The other colonies continued to look on 
it with disfavor, and Massachusetts and Connecticut each 
claimed the right to govern its territory. A new charter 
was secured for Rhode Island and Providence Plantations 
(1663), under which the colony governed itself almost 180 
years. 

COLLATERAL READINGS 

Jo3»n Siuitli and the Pilg-riiiis.— Fiske's Begintiings of New England, pp. 78-87. 
King Philip's War.— Fiske's Begintiings of New England, pp. 211-236. 



VI. NEW YORK 

Settlement. — Soon after the discovery of the Hudson, 
Dutch ships began to visit the river to traffic in furs with 
the Indians. Afterw^ards (1621), the West India Company 
obtained a grant of New Netherland, and under its patron- 
age permanent settlements were soon made at New Amster- 
dam' and at Fort Orange (Albany). The company al- 
lowed persons who should plant a colony of fifty settlers to 

' Some huts were built by Dutch traders ou Manhattan Island, at the mouth of the 
Hudson, in 1613, and a trading post was established in 1615. In the latter year Fort 
Nassau was completed soiitb of the present site of Albany. 



72 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 



[1626 



select and buy laud of the ludiaus, which it was agreed 
should descend to their heirs forever. These persons were 
called "patroons" (patrons) of the manor. 

The Four Dutch Governors (1626-64).'— Tlie early his- 
tory of New York is marked by a bloody war with the 
Indians (1643-45) while Kieft was governor, and by diffi- 
culties with the Swedes on the Delaware and with the 
English on the Connecticut.^ These disturbances are 

monotonous enough 
in the recital, but 
doubtless thrilled 
the blood of the 
early Knickerbock- 
ers. Peter Stuy- 
vesant, who had lost 
a leg in the service 
of Holland, was the 
last and ablest of 
the four Dutch gov- 
ernors. He agreed 
with Connecticut 
upon the boundary 
line (1650), and tak- 
ing an armed force, 
marched upon the 
Swedes, who at once submitted to him. But the old gov- 
ernor hated democratic institutions, and was terribly vexed 
in this wise. There were some English in the colony, and 

> Peter Minuit, 1626-32; Wouter van Twlller, 1633-38; Bir William Kieft, 1638-47 ; 
Peter Stu^'vcsant, 1647-64. Peter Minuit, the first governor, liouRlit Manhattan Tsland 
of the Indians for froods valued at $24. After his reeall from New Kctherland ho 
went to Sweden, and led out the Swedish eoloiiy that settled on the Delaware (p. 76). 

2 These disputes arose from the fact that the Dutch claimed the territory bordering 
and lying between the Dela\7are and the Connecticut, on which the Swedes and the 
English were settling. 




THE MIDDr.K COLON1E.S. 



1664] 



NEW YORK 



73 



they longed for the rights of self-government which the 
Connecticut people enjoyed. They kept demanding these 
privileges and talking of them to their Dutch neighbors. 
In August, 1664, an English fleet came to anchor in the 
harbor and demanded the surrender of New Netherland in 
the name of the Duke of York, who had received a grant 
of this territory from his brother, King Charles II. Stout- 




STUYVESAXT IN NEW AMSTERDAM (NEW YORK). 

hearted old Peter pleaded with his council to fight. But 
in vain. They rather liked the idea of English rule. The 
surrender was signed, and at last the reluctant governor 
attached his name. "When the English flag was raised over 
Manhattan Island, the colony and the town were named 
New York in honor of the proprietor. 



74 TlIK TIIIirrEEN COLONIES [1673 

The English Governors disappointed the people by not 
granting them their coveted, rights. A remonstrance 
against Inking taxed without representation was burned 
by the hangman. So that when, after nine years of 
English rule, a Dutch fleet appeared in the harbor, the 
people went back quietly under their old rulers. But the 
next year, peace being restored between England and 
Holland, New Amsterdam l)ecame New York again. 
Thus ended the Dutch rule in the colonies. Andros, who 
twelve years after played the tyrant in New England, 
was the next governor; but he ruled so arbitrarily that 
he was called home. Under his successor, Dongan, an 
assembly of the representatives of the people was called, 
by permission of the Duke of York (1()83). This was but 
a transient gleam of civil freedom, for two years after, 
when the Duke of York became James II., king of Eng- 
land, he forgot all his promises, forbade legislative assem- 
blies, prohibited printing presses, and annexed the colony 
to New England. When, however, Andros was driven 
from Boston, Nicholson, his lieutenant and ai)t tool of 
tyranny in New York, was compelled to flee. Captain Leis- 
ler (lls'ler), supported by the democi-acy but bitterly op- 
posed by the aristocracy, thereupon administered affairs 
until the ari'ival of Governor Sloughter (slaw'ter). Hav- 
ing forcibly i-esistcd the governor's lieutenant, Leislci- was 
arrested and tried for treason. Sloughter was unwilling 
to execute him, but Leisler's enemies made the governor 
drunk, obtained his signature to the death warrant, and be- 
fore he became sober enough to repent, Leisler was no more. 

From this time till the Revolution the struggles of the 
people with the royal governors for their rights devel- 
oped the spirit of liberty and paved the way for that 
eventful crisis. 



1618] NEW YORK, NEW JERSEY 75 

VII. NEW JERSEY 

Settlement. — The present State of New Jersey was em- 
braced ill the territory of New Netherlaud, and the Dutch 
seem to have had a trading post at Bergen as early as 
1618. Soon after New Netherland passed into the hands 
of the Duke of York, he gave the land ^ between the Hud- 
son and the Delaware to Lord Berkeley and Sir George 
Carteret. In 1664 a company from Long Island and 
New England settled at Elizabethtown, which they named 
after Carteret's wife. This was the first permanent Eng- 
lish settlement in the State. 

East and West Jersey. — In 1676 New Jerse}" was divided 
between the proprietors, by the line shown on the map, 
page 72. Lord Berkeley had already sold his share to 
two English Quakers. This part was called "West Jersey. 
A company of Quakers soon settled at Burlington. Others 
followed, and thus West Jersey became a Quaker colony. 
Sir George Carteret's portion was called East Jersey. 
After his death it was sold to William Penn and a num- 
ber of other Quakers, who were then in control of West 
Jersey.- 

New Jersey United. — Constant disputes arose out of 
the land titles. The proprietors finally (1702) surrendered 
their rights of government to the English crown, and the 
whole of New Jersey was united with New York under 
one governor, but with a separate assembly'. Thirt\'-six 
years after, at the earnest request of the peojjle, New 
Jersey was set apart as a distinct royal province. 

' This tract was called New Jersey in liouor of Carteret, who ha;l been governor of 
the island of Jersey iu the English Channel. 

- East Jersey was settled, however, largely by Puritans and Scotch Presbyterians. 
The latter, having refused to accept the English form of religion, had been bitterly per- 
secuted. Fleeing their native countrj-, they fountl au asylum iu this favored land. 



76 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES [1638 

VIII., IX. PENNSYLVANIA AND DELAWARE 

Settlement. — Tho first permanent settlement in Dela- 
ware was made near Wilmington (1638), by the Swedes, 
on a tract which they called New Sweden. They also 
established the first settlement in Pennsylvania, a few 
miles below Philadelphia. These settlements were subse- 
quently conquered by the Dutch, but they continued to 
prosper long after Swedish and Dutch I'ule had ended. 

William Fenn, the founder of Pennsylvania, was a cele- 
brated English Quaker,* He obtained from Charles II. a 
grant of land west of the Delaware (1681). This tract 
Penn named Sylvania, but the king insisted upon calling 
it Pennsylvania (Penn's Woods), in honor of William 
Penn's father. The Duke of York added to this grant the 
present State of Delaware, which for many years was 
called " the three lower counties on the Delaware." Penn 
wished to form a refuge for his Quaker brethren, who 
were bitterly persecuted in England. He at once sent 
over large numbers, as many as two thousand in a single 
year. In 1682 ho came himself, and was received by the 
settlers with the greatest cordiality and respect. 

' Tlie Qiuikers, avoiding,' iiiiineauiiifj: fcmns, aiiiii'd to lead piirolj' spiritual lives. 
Their usual worsliip was <-inid\ictt;'<l iu soleuni silence, ea<'b soul for itself. They took 
no oath, made uo coiuplimcnts, removed not the bat to kiufr or ruler, and said "thee" 
and "thou" to both friend and foe. Every day was to them a holy day, and the 
Sabbath was simply a day of rest. 

William Penn became a Quaker while in eollese at Oxford. Refusing to wear the 
custoniary student's gown, he with others violently assaulted some fellow-students 
and striiiped them of their robes. For this he was expelled. His father would not 
allow him to return home, but afterwards relented and .sent him to Taris, Cork, and 
other cities, to soften hia Quaker peculiarities. After several unhappy quarrels, his 
father proi)osed to overlook all else if he would only consent to doff his hat to the 
king, the Duke of York, and himself. Penn still refusing, he was again turned out 
of doors. He was several times iuiprisoued for his religious extremes. On the death 
of his father, to whom he had once more lieen reconciled, he inherited a fortune. In 
1676 he became part owner of West Jersey. lie took the territory which forms Penn- 
sylvania in payment of a d<fbt of £16,000 due hia father from the crown. 



1683] 



PENNSYLVANIA 



77 



Philadelphia Founded. — The year following (1683) Penn 
purchased land of the Swedes, and laid out a city which he 
named Philadelphia, a name signifying hrotlierly love. It 
was in the midst of the forest, yet within a year it con- 
tained 100 houses; in two years it numbered over 2000 
inhabitants ; and in three years it gained more than New 
York had in half a century. 

The Great Law was a code agreed upon by the legisla- 
tive assembly which Penn called from among the settlers 
soon after his arrival. Tt made faith in Christ a necessary 




Painting by Benja 



PENN'S TEEATT WITH THK INDIAN? 



qualification for voting and officeholding, but also pro- 
vided that no one believing in " Almighty God " should be 
molested in his religious views. The Quakers, having 
been persecuted themselves, did not celebrate their liberty 
by persecuting others. Penn himself surrendered the 
most of his power to the people. His highest ambition 
seemed to be to advance their interests. 



78 THE THIRTEEN- COLONIES [1683 

Penn's Treaty with the Indians possesses a romantic 
interest. He met them under a large elm tree* near 
Philadelphia. The savages were touched by his gentle 
words and kindly hearing. "We will live in love with 
William Penn and his children," said they, "as long as 
the sun and moon shall shine." ^ 

Penn's Return. — Penn returned to England (1684), leav- 
ing the colony fairly established. His benevolent spirit 
shone forth in his parting words : " Dear friends, my love 
salutes you all." 

Delaware. — " The three lower counties on the Delaware," 
being greatly offended by the action of the council which 
Penn had left to govern in his absence, set up for them- 
selves. Penn "sorrowfully" consented to their action, 
appointed a deputy governor over them, and afterwards 
granted them a separate assembly. Pennsylvania and 
Delaware, however, remained under one governor until 
the Revolution. 

Penn's Heirs, after his death (1718), became proprietors 
of the flourishing colony he had established. It was ruled 
by deputies whom they appointed, and who had many 
quarrels with the legislative assemblies elected by the 
people. Finally, in 1779, the State of Pennsylvania 
bought out the claims of the Penn family by the payment 
of al)Out half a million of dollars. 

Mason and Dixon's Line. — A difficulty having arisen 
with Maryland about boundaries, it was settled by a com- 

1 It was blown down in l.sKi. A nionnniciit now marks tlio spot. " NVc meet," said 
Penn, "ou tbo broad patbway of jjood faitb and good will- no advantafre shall bo 
taken on either side, but all sliall be openness and love. The friendship between 
you and me I will not eompant to a chain ; for that the rains nii;?ht rust or the 
falling tree mijrlit break. We are the same as if one man's body were to be divided 
into two parts; we jire all one flesh and blood." 

2 "It was the only treaty never sworn to, and the only one never broken." On 
every hand the Indians waged relentless war with the colonies, but they never shed 
a drop of Quaker blood. 



17G3] DELAWARE, MARYLAND 79 

promise, and the line was run by two surveyors named 
Mason and Dixon (1763-67). This " Mason and Dixon's 
Line" afterwards became famous as the division between 
the slave and the free States. 

COLLATERAL READINGS 

New Netlierlantl.— Fiske's Dutch and Quaker f'oloiticx, vol. i. pp. 96-129. 
Pennsylvania.— Fiske's Dutch and Quaker Colonies, vol. ii. pp. 147-167. 



X. MARYLAND 

Settlement. — Lord Baltimore (Cecil Calvert),^ a Catholic, 
was anxious to secure for the friends of his church a refuge 
from the persecutions which they were then suffering in 
England. He accordingly obtained from King Charles I. 
a grant of land lying north of the Potomac. The first 
settlement was made (1634) by his brother, at an Indian 
village which he called St. Marys, near the mouth of the 
Potomac. 

The Charter was very different from that granted to Vir- 
ginia, since it gave to all freemen a voice in making the 
laws. An assembly, called in accordance with this pro- 
vision, passed (1641)) the celebrated Toleration Act, which 
confirmed to all Christians liberty to worship God accord- 
ing to the dictates of their own conscience. Maryland, 
like Rhode Island, was an asylum for the persecuted. 

Civil Wars.— 1. Clayhorne's Rebellion (1635).— The Vir- 
ginia colony claimed that Lord Baltimore's grant covered 

' His father, George Calvert, the fii'st Lord Baltimore, with this same design had 
attempted to plant a colony in Newfoiiiidlaud. But having failed on account of the 
severity of the climate, he visited Virginia. When he found that the Catholics were 
there treated with great har.shness, he returned to England, took out a grant of land, 
and bestowed upon it, in honor of the queen, the name Mary's Land (Terra Mariw). 
Before the patent had received the great seal of the king. Lord Baltimore died. His 
son, inheriting the father's noble and benevolent views, secured the grant himself and 
carried out the philanthropic scheme. 



80 THE THIKTEEN COLONIES [1G35 

territory belonging to Vii-ginia. Clayborne, a member of 
the Jamestown council, was especiall}' obstinate in the 
matter. He had established two trading posts in Maryland, 
which he prepared to defend by force of arras. A bloody 
skirmish ensued in which his party was beaten. Clayborne, 
however, fled to Virginia, and, going to England, appealed 
to King Charles I. for redress. But the final decision fully 
sustained the rights of Lord Baltimore under the charter. 
In 1645, however, Clayborne came back to Maryland, 
raised a rebellion, and drove Governor Calvert, in his turn, 
out of the colony. The governor at last raised a strong 
force, and Clayborne fled. This ended the contest. 

2. The Protestants and the Catholics. — The Protestants, 
having obtained a majority in the Maryland assembly, 
made a most ungrateful use of their power. They refused 
to acknowledge the hereditary rights of the proprietor, 
assailed his religion, excluded Catholics from the assembly, 
and even declared them outside the protection of the law. 
Civil war ensued. For years the victory alternated. At 
one time two governments, one Protestant, the other Cath- 
olic, were sustained. In 1691 Lord Baltimoi'c was entirely 
deprived of his rights as proprietor, and Maryland became 
a royal province. The Church of England was established, 
and the Catholics were again disfranchised in the very 
province they had planted. In 1715 the fourth Lord Bal- 
timore recovered the government, and religious toleration 
was restored. Maryland remained under this administra- 
tion until the Revolution. 

XL, XII. THE CAROLINAS 

Settlement. — Lord Clar'endon and other noblemen ob- 
tained (1663 and 1665) from Charles II. a grant of a vast 



1663] 



NORTH CAROLINA, SOUTH CAROLINA 



81 



tract south of Virginia, and extending across the continent 
from sea to sea. • It was called, in honor of the king, Caro- 
lina/ Two permanent settlements were soon made. 

1. The Al'bemarle^ Colony was the name given to a 
plantation already settled by people who had pushed 
through the wilderness from Virginia. A governor from 
their own number was appointed over them. They were 
then left in quiet to 

enjoy their liber- 
ties and forget the 
world.^ 

2. The Carteret 
Colony was estab- 
lished in 1670 by 
English immigrants. 
They began a settle- 
ment on the banks 
of the Ashley, but 
afterwards removed 
it to the "ancient 
groves covered with 
yellow jessamine " 
which marked the site of the present city of Charleston. 
The growth of this colony was rapid from the first. 
Thither came shiploads of Dutch from New York, dissat- 
isfied with the English rule and attracted by the genial' 
climate. The Huguenots (French Protestants), hunted 
from their homes, here found a Southern welcome.^ 

1 This name, it will be reiuenibered, is tbe same that Ribaut (p. 35) gave his fort 
in honor of Charles IX. of France. 

2 Both colonies were named after prominent proprietors of tbe grant. 

3 Except when rent day came. Tlieu they were called upon to pay to the English 
proprietors a halfpenny an acre. 

*In Charleston alone there were at one time as many as 16,000 rfugiicnots. They 
added whole streets to the city. Their severe morality, marked charity, elegant mau- 

B. HIST. U. 8.-6 




(JVLF OF 
A' H X ICO 



CAROLINA BY THE GRANT OF 16G5. 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 



[1669 



The Grand Model was a form of government for the colo- 
nies prepared by Lord Shaftesbury and the celebrated 
philosopher John Locke. It was a magnificent scheme. 
The wilderness was to be divided into vast estates, with 
which hereditary titles were to be granted. But the 
model was aristocratic, while the people were democratic. 
It granted no rights of self-government, while the settlers 
came into the wilderness for the love of liberty. This 
was not the soil on which vain titles and empty pomp 




could flourish. To make the Grand Model a success, it 
would have been necessary to transform the log cabin 
into a baronial castle, and the independent settlers into 
armed retainers. The attempt to introduce the scheme 
arousing violent opposition, it was at length abandoned. 

ncrs. and thrifty liahits nnulc them a most (lesirabh; acquisition. Their descendants 
are eminently honorable, and have borne a proud part in the establishment of our 
republic. 



1670] NORTH CAROLKNA, SOUTH CAROLINA 83 

Pirates. — The Carolina colonies were foimdecl at a time 
when piracy in and near the West Indies was at its height. 
The freebooters or buccaneers, as they were called, in- 
cluded many hundreds of men, of all nationalities hostile to 
Spain ; and at first their attacks were made against Span- 
ish ships and towns only. They had strongholds and hid- 
ing places in Haiti and some other islands, and along the 
Carolina coasts. In the early days the Carolina colonists 
favored the pirates, as they were good customers for prod- 
uce of various kinds ; but before long the pirates began 
to capture ships trading with Charleston, and then the 
colonists helped make war on them.^ By 1730 the pirates 
were extirpated. 

Indian Troubles.— War having broken out with the Tus- 
carora Indians (1711), the settlers of both the Carolina 
colonies united in expelling the tribe from the country,^ 

North and South Carolina Separated. — The two colonies, — 
the northern, or Albemarle, and the southern, or Car- 
teret, — being so remote from each other, had from the 
beginning separate governors, though they remained one 
proviuce. There was constant friction between the set- 
tlers and the proprietors. The people were jealous. The 
pi'oprietors were arbitrary. Rents, taxes, and disputed 

1 One of the most noted pirates was Robert Thatch, commonly called Blackboard. 
He once took and robbed some shiv)8 as they sailed out from Charleston, and compelled 
the governor to give him a full line of supplies as ransom for the captured passengers, 
on pain of their instant death. This was his last great exploit, however, for a little 
later in tlie same year (1718) he was killed in a fight with ships from Virginia. 

William Kidd, a New York shipmaster, was once sent out to cruise against sea 
robbers. He turned pirate himself and became the most noted of them all. Return- 
ing from his cruise, he was arrested in Boston. He was carried to England, tried, and 
hanged. Some goods and treasure which he had buried on Gardiners Island (just east 
of Long Island) were recovered. He was believed to have buried more of his ill-gotten 
riches on the coast of Long Island or the banks of the Hudson, and these localities 
have been oftentimes searched by credulous persons seeking for Kidd's treasure. 

-The Tuscaroras sought refuge in the country of the Five Nations, or Iroquois 
(p. 12), and a few years later were admitted into this Indian confederacy, which thus 
became the Six Nations. 



84 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 



[1729 



rights were plentiful sources of irritation. Things kept 
on in this unsettled way until (1729) the discouraged pro- 
prietors ceded to the crown their i-ight of government 
and seven eighths of the soil. Tlie two colonies were 
separated, and they remained royal provinces until the 
Revolution. 



XIII. GEORGIA 

Georgia, the last colony of the famous thirteen, 
was planned in the same year that Washington was 
born, and after Virginia had been settled for 125 years. 




OGLETJIOKl'K ANU THK INDIAN CHIKF 



James O'glethorpe, a warm-hearted English officer, having 
conceived the idea of founding a refuge for debtors im- 



1732] GEORGIA 85 

prisoned under the severe laws of that time, naturally 
turned to America, even then the home of the oppressed. 
He formed a company of twenty-one men, to whom King 
George II. granted, "in trust for the poor," a tract of 
land between the Savannah and Altamaha' rivers, and 
stretching westward across the continent. This colony 
was called Greorgia, in honor of the king. Oglethorpe 
made a settlement at Savannah in 1733.^ 

A general interest was excited in England, and many 
charitable people gave liberally to promote the enterprise. 
More emigrants followed, including, as in the other col- 
onies, many who sought religious or civil liberty."^ The 
trustees limited the size of a man's farm, did not allow 
women to inherit land, . and forbade the importation of 
rum'' or of slaves. These restrictions were irksome, and 
great discontent prevailed. At last the trustees, wearied 
by the frequent complaints of the colonists, surrendered 
their charter to the crown. Georgia remained a royal 
province until the Revolution. 

COLLATERAL READING 
Pirates.— Fiske's Old Yirginia, vol. ii. pp. 361-369. 

1 He made peace -witli the Indians, conciliating them V)y presents and by his kindly 
disposition. One of the chiefs gave him in I'eturn a bviffalo's skin with the head and 
feathers of an eagle painted on the inside of it. " The eagle," said the chief, " siguilies 
swiftness; and the buffalo, strength. The Englisli are swift as a bird to fly over the 
vast seas, and as strong as a beast before their enemies. The eagle's feathers are soft 
and signify love ; the buffalo's skin is warm and means protection ; therefore love and 
protect our families." 

-' The gentle Moravians and sturdy Scotch Highlanders were among the number, 
and proved valuable acquisitions to the colony. The former had fled from Austria 
for conscience' sake. Lutherans from Salzburg, Austiia, founded a colony in the pine 
forests and named it Ebonezer. When John Wesley, the founder of Methodism, came 
to America as a missionary with his brother Charles, he was greatly charmed with the 
fervent piety of this simple people. The celebrated George Whitefleld afterwards 
founded at Savannah an orphan asylum, -which he supported by contributions from the 
immense audiences whicli his wonderful eloquence attracted to his open-air meetings. 

'^ Rum was obtained from the West Indies in exchange for lumber. Hence this law 
prevented that trade. 



86 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 



[1689 



XIV. INTERCOLONIAL WARS 



I. KING WILLIAM'S WAR fieSg-gy) 

Cause. — War having broken out iu Europe between Eng- 
land and France, their colonies in America were forced into 
the quarrel. The Indians of Canada and Maine aided the 
French, and the Iroquois helped the English (see p. 37). 

Attacks upon the Colonists. — In the depth of winter, 
war parties of the French and Indians, coming down on 
their snowshoes from Canada through the forest, fell upon 

several of the ex- 




NORTHERN COLONIKS IN THK INTEKCOI.ONI AI, WARS. 



posed settlements 
of New York and 
New England and 
committed horrible 
barbarities. Schen- 
ectady (sken ec'ta- 
dy), unsuspecting 
and defenseless, 
was attacked at 
midnight. Men, 
women, and chil- 
dren were dragged from their beds and tomahawked. The 
few who escaped, half naked, made their way through the 
snow of that fearful night to iVlbany.' 

' Tlic histories of the time abound in thrillinp stories of Indian adventure. One 
day in March, 16U7, IlaverhilKhavcr il>. Mass , was attacked. Mr. Diistin was at work 
in the field. Iliurying to his house, he brou-^ht out his seven chihlren, and bid 
ding them "run ahead," shiwly retreated, keeping the Indians back with his gun. He 
thus brouglit otT his little flock in safety. His wife, who was unable to escape with 
him, was dragged into cat)tivity. The party that had captured Mrs. Dustin marched 
many days through the forest, and at length reached an island in tlie Merrimae. Here 
she resolved to escape. A white lioy, who had been taken prisoner l)cforc, found out 
from his Indian master, at Mrs. Dustin's request, wher«> to strike a l)low that would 
produce instant tlea'.h, and how to take otta scalp. Having learned these facts, in the 



J690] KING WILLIAM'S WAR, QUEEN ANNE'S WAR 87 

Attacks by the Colonists. — Aroused by such scenes of 
savage ferocity, the colonists organized two expeditions : 
one under Phips (soon after governor of Massachusetts, 
p. 65) against Port Royal, Acadia ; and the other, a com- 
bined land and naval attack on Canada. The former was 
successful, and secured, it is said, plunder enough to pay 
the expenses of the expedition. The latter was a dis- 
astrous failure, owing to the superior ability of Count 
Fron'tenac, governor of Canada, who managed the war 
on the side of France. 

Peace. — The war lasted eight years. It was ended by 
the treaty of Ryswick (riz'wik), one clause of which 
provided that England and France should each hold the 
territory it had at the beginning of the struggle. 

2. QUEEN ANNE'S WAR (1702-13) 

Cause. — England having declared war agamst France 
and Spain, hostilities again broke out between their col- 
onies. The Iroquois or Five Nations had made a treaty 
with the French, and so took no part in the contest. 
Their neutrality protected New Yoi'k from invasion. 
Consequently, the brunt of the war fell on New England. 

Attacks upon the Colonists. — The New England fron- 
tier was again desolated.' Remote settlements were aban- 
doned. The people betook themselves to palisaded houses, 
and worked their farms with their guns always at hand. 

uiglit she awoke the boy and her nurse, and arranged their parts. The task was soon 
done. Seizing each a tomahawk, they killed ten of the sleeping Indians ; only one 
escaped. She then scalped the dead bodies in order to prove her story when she should 
reach home, and hastened to the bank, where, taking one canoe and destroying the 
others, they descended the river and soon rejoined her family. 

' On the last night of February, 1704, a party of about 350 French and Indians 
reached a pine forest near Deerfield, Mass. Toward morning, tlie stealthy invaders 
rushed upon the defenseless slumberers, who awoke from their dreams to death 
or captivity. Leaving the blazing village with forty-seven dead bodies to be 



88 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES [1702 

Attacks by the Colonists. — 1. In the South. — South Caro- 
lina made a fruitless expedition against her old Spanish 
enemies at St. Augustine (1702).* 

2. In the North. — Port Royal, Nova Scotia, was again 
wrested from the French by a combined force of English 
and colonial troops. In honor of the queen, its name was 
changed to Annajj'olis. Another expedition sailed against 
Quebec, but many of the ships were dashed upon the rocks 
in the St. Lawrence, and nearly 1000 men jjerished. Thus 
ended the second attempt to conquer Canada. 

Peace. — The war lasted eleven years. It was ended by 
the treaty of Utrecht (u'trekt), wliich, besides settling 
many European (juestions, provided that Acadia should 
belong to Great Britain. 

3. KING GEORGE'S WAR- (1744-48) 

Capture of Louisburg. — War having broken out between 
Great Britain and France, the flame was soon kindled in 
the New World. Tlie only event of importance was the- 

consumed iiinid the wreck, tliey tlieii started back with their train of 112 captives 
through th<^ snow. T^hc horrors of tliat inarch can never he tohl. Tlie groan of lielp- 
less exhaustion, or the wail of sulTcring chihlliood, was instantly stilled by the pitiless 
tomahawk. Mrs. Williams, the feeble wife of the minister, had remembered her 
Bible in the midst of surprise, and comforted herself with its promises till, her 
strength failing, she commended her five captive children to God, and bent to the 
savage blow of the war-ax. One of her daughters grew up in captivity, embraced 
the Catholic faith, and became the wife of a chief. Years after, she visited her friends 
in Deerficld. The whole village joined in a fast for licr deliverance, but her heart 
loved best her children, and she went l)ack to the fires of her Indian wigwam. 

> Four years after, the French and Spanish sent a fleet from Havana against Charles- 
ton. The people, however, valiantly defended themselves, and soon drove oflF their 
assailants. 

■-iThls war was preceded by what is known as the "Spa-nish War," which grew 
ontof difficulties then existing between England and Spain. In America, Governor 
Oglethorpe invested (1740) St. Augustine with a force of 2000 men, but the strength 
of the Spanish garrison, and the loss by sickness, caused the attempt to be 
abandoned. The Spaniards, in their turn, sent (1742) an expedition against Georgia. 
By means of a letter which Governor Oglethorpe caused to fall into the hands of the 
Spaniards, they were made to believe that he expected large roenforoements. Being 



1745] KING GEORGE'S WAR 89 

capture of Louisburg/ on the island of Cape Breton, by a 
combined force of British and colonial troops. The latter 
did most of the fighting, but the former took the glory 
and the booty. Peace being made in 1748 by the treaty 
of Aix-la-Chapelle (aks lah shah pel'), England gave back 
Louisburg to the French. The boundaries between the 
French and the English colonies were left undecided, and 
so the germ of a new war remained. 

4. FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR (1754-63) 

Cause. — The English occupied at this time a narrow 
strip along the coast, 1000 miles in length. It was like a 
string to the great bow of the French territory, which 
reached around from Quebec to New Orleans. Both 
nations, overlooking the real proprietors, the Indians, 
claimed the region west of the Appalachian Mountains, 
along the Ohio River. In 1749 Celoron {sa lo roN') was 
sent by the French to take formal possession of the Ohio 
valley; along the course of the Ohio he buried a number 
of lead plates on which the, French claim was inscribed. 
The next year the British king granted to the Ohio Com- 
pany half a million acres in the valley, on condition of 
settling the territory. The three previous intercolonial 
wars had engendered bitter hatred, and occasions for 
quarrel were abundant. The French had over sixty mili- 
tary posts guarding the long line of their possessions. 
They seized the English surveyors along the Ohio. They 

frightened, they burned the fort they had captured, and fled in haste. The English 
colonies also furnished about 4000 men for an expedition against the Spanish settle- 
ments in the West Indies ; but only a few hundred returned from this disastrous 
entervirise. 

1 Louisburg was called the " Gibraltar of America." Its fortifications were exten- 
sive, and cost upward of $5,000,000. When the place was captured, the colonial troops 
themselves were astonished at what they had done. The achievement called forth 
great rejoicing throughout th(^ country, especially in New England, and had an influ- 
ence in the Revolutionary War thirty years after. 



90 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 



[1753 



broke up a British post on the Miam'i. They built a 
fort on Lake Erie at Presque Isle (presk eel'), near the 
present city of Erie ; another, Fort le Bfjeuf (P buf), at the 
present town of Waterford ; and a third, Fort Venan'go, 
about forty miles south, at the mouth of French Creek 
(p. 92). These encroachments awakened the liveliest 
solicitude on the part of the English colonists. 

Washington's Journey. — Dinwiddle, lieutenant govern- 
or of Virginia, accordingly sent a message by George 




WASHINGTON AT lOKT I.K ItCEUF. 



Washington, then a young man of twenty-one, to the 
French commander of these forts, asking their removal. 
Washingtcm, after a perilous journey through the wilder- 
ness, found the French officer at Fort Venango loud and 



1753] FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR dl 

boastful. At Fort le Boenf, the commandant treated him 
with great respect, but, bke a true soldier, refused to 
discuss claims, and declared himself under orders which 
he should obey. It was clear that France was determined 
to hold the territory claimed under the discoveries of the 
heroic La Salle and Marquette. Washington's return 
through the wilderness, a distance of 400 miles, was full 
of peril.^ At last he reached home unharmed and de- 
livered the French commandant's reply. 

War Opens. — Early the next spring (1754), the French, 
at the fork of the Monongahela and the Allegheny, drove 
off a party of English traders and erected a fort, which 
was called Duquesne (du kan'). Soon, among the black- 
ened stumps, corn and barley were growing on the present 
site of Pittsburg. In the meantime, part of Colonel Fry's 
regiment of Virginia troops, under Washington, had been 
sent to occupy this important point. Learning that the 
French had anticipated them, Washington hastened for- 
ward with a reconnoitering party. Jumonville (zhu moN- 
veel'), who was hiding among the trees and rocks with a 
detachment of French troops, waiting an opportunity to 
attack him, was himself surprised and slain." Washing- 
ton now retreated to the Great Meadows, where he re- 

1 The streams were swollen. Sleet was falling, and freezing as it fell. The horses 
gave out, and he was forced to proceed on foot. With only one companion, he 
quitted the usual path, and, with the compass as his guide, struck boldly out through 
the forest. An India~ lying in wait tired at him only a few paces oflF, but, missing, 
was captured. Attempting to cross the Allegheny on a rude raft, they were caught 
between large masses of ice floating down the rapil current of the midchannel. 
Washington thrust out his pole to check the speed, but was jerked into the foaming 
water. Swimming to an island, he barely saved his life. Fortunately, in the morning 
the river was frozen over, and he escaped on the ice. 

- Washington's word of command to fire upon that skulking foe (May 2S, 1754) was 
the opening of the campaign. Washington himself, it is said, fired the first shot of 
that long and bloody war. The first three intercolonial wars had been merely incidental 
to wars in Europe. This French and Indian War, on the contrary, began in America. 
It soon spread to the Old World, where it involved most of the countries of Europe 
and was known there as the Seven Years' War. 



1754] FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 93 

ceived some reenforcements, and built a rude stockade, 
aptly named Fort Necessity. Here lie was attacked by 
a large force of French and Indians, and, after a severe 
conflict, was compelled to capitulate. 

Franklin's Plan of Union. — At the beginning of this war 
the British colonies numbered many times more inhabit- 
ants than did Canada ; yet their military power was less. 
Canada was ruled by one governor, who exercised all the 
powers of government. But the different English colo- 
nies were distracted by jealousies, and in many cases the 
governor and the colonial assembly distrusted and ham- 
pered each other. These difficulties had appeared in the 
previous intercolonial wars, and were well known. To 
avoid them, and secure harmonious action of all the colo- 
nies, Franklin proposed a Plan of Union at a congress of 
delegates that met in Albany (1754) to treat with the 
Iroquois. This plan provided for a central government 
that could levy taxes and carry on war. Though approved 
by the congress, it was rejected by the colonies, as each 
was unwilling to surrender any of its powers. 

The Five Objective Points of the War. — 1. Fort Du- 
QUESNE was the key to the region west of the Appala- 
chians, and so long as the French held it, Virginia and 
Pennsylvania were exposed to Indian attacks. 2. The 
' French possession of Louisburg and part of Acadia threat- 
ened New England, and gave control over the Newfound- 
land fisheries. Privateers harbored there, to prey on Eng- 
lish ships. 3. Crown Point and Ticondero'ga controlled 
the route to and from Canada by the way of Lakes George 
and Champlain. 4. Fort Niagara lay on the portage 
between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario, and thus protected 
the great fur trade of the Upper Lakes and the West. 5. 
Quebec, the strongest fortification in Canada, gave control 



94 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES [1755 

of the St. Lawrence, and largely decided the possession 
of that province. 

We thus see why these points were so persistently at- 
tacked by the British, and so obstinately defended by the 
French. We shall speak of them in order. 

I. Fort Duquesne. — The First Expedition (1755) was 
commanded by General Braddock. Washington, who 
acted as an aid-de-camp, warned him of the dangers of 
savage warfare, but his suggestions were received with 
contempt. The column arrived within seven miles of the 
fort, marching along the Monongahela in regular array, 
drums beating and colors flying. Suddenly they came 
upon the Indians, who immediately concealed themselves 
in the thick underbrush on each side and at once opened 
fire. The terrible war whoop resounded on every hand. 
The British regulars huddled together, and, frightened, 
fired by platoons, at random, into rocks and trees. The 
Virgniia troops alone sjjrang into the forest and fought 
the savages in Indian style. Washington seemed every- 
where present. An Indian chief with his braves specially 
singled him out. Four balls passed through his clothes; 
two horses were shot under him. Braddock was mortally 
wounded and borne from the field. At last, when two 
thirds of the troops were killed or wounded, the regulars 
turned and fled. Washington covered their flight and 
saved the wreck of the army from pursuit. 

Second Expedition (1758). — General Forbes led the sec- 
ond expedition, Washington commanding the Virginia 
troops. The general lost so much time in building roads 
that in November he was fifty miles from the fort. A 
council of war decided to give up the attempt; but 
Washington, receiving news of the weakness of the 
French garrison, urged a forward movement. He him- 



1758] FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 95 

self led the advance guard, and by his vigilance dispelled 
all danger of Indian surprise. The French fired the fort 
and fled at his approach/ As the flag of Grreat Britain 
floated out over the ruined ramparts, this gateway of the 
West was named Pittsburg, in honor of William Pitt, 
prime minister of England, whose true friendship for the 
colonies was warmly apjireciated in America. 

2. Acadia and Louisburg. — 1. Acadia. — We have seen 
(p. 88) that Acadia was ceded to Great Britain after Queen 
Anne's War. But the British gained possession of only 
the peninsula now called Nova Scotia ; the part of Acadia 
now called New Brunswick was still held by the French, 
who thus attempted to cut down the extent of the new 
British province. Scarcely had the French and Indian 
War begun when an attack was made on the French 
part of Acadia. The forts at the head of the Bay of 
Fundy were quickly taken, and the entire region east of 
the Penobscot fell into the hands of the British.-^ 

2. Louisburg. — General Loudoun (low'don) collected an 
army at Halifax for an attack on Louisburg (1757). After 
spending all summer in drilling his troops, he gave up 
the attempt on learning that during his delay a powerful 

• Some of them went southward and helped to stir up the Cherokees to attack the 
Southern colonies. The Cherokee war lasted, with all the atrocities of Indian warfare, 
till a strong expedition had destroyed many of the Cherokee villaffes (1761). 

'^ This victory was followed by an act of heartless cruelty. The French Acadians 
of Nova Scotia were driven on board ships at the point of the bayonet, and were dis- 
tributed among the English colonies. Care was taken, however, not to break up 
families. The exiles suflfcred many hardships, and often met insult and abuse. Long- 
fellow pathetically tells the story of the Acadians in his Evangeline. The Acadi- 
ans' houses and bams were burned, and after a time their farms were given to British 
settlers invited there by the government. But though the British government was 
thus cruel, it acted only after great provocation. The Acadians were a simple-minded 
rural people, and if left to themselves might have become loyal British subjects after 
the treaty of Utrecht made their country a British possession. But French agents 
urged them to acts of hostility against their new rulers, and they stubbornly refused 
to take the oath of allegiance to their new king. The government felt that it was 
unsafe to risk any longer the danger of an Acadian rebcUion. 



96 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES [17;-i8 

French fleet had arrived for the defense of Louisburg. 
The next year Generals Amherst (am'erst) and Wolfe cap- 
tured the fortress after a severe bombardment (1758), and 
took possession of the entire island of Cape Breton.' 

3. Crown Point and Ticonderoga. — 1. Battle of Lake 
George (1755). — About the time of Braddock's expedition, 
another was made against Crown Point. After many 
delays the French under Dieskau (dos'kow) were met 
near the head of Lake George. General William Johnson 
was slightly wounded, and retired to his tent, whereupon 
General Lyman, with his provincial troops, regained the 
battle then nearly lost. This victory, following closely on 
the heels of Braddock's disaster, excited great joy. John- 
son was given a baronetcy and $25,000 ; Lymian, the real 
victor, received nothing. This battle ended the attempt 
to take Crown Point. Johnson built Fort William Henry 
near the battlefield, and when winter set in, dismissing 
the New England militia, went to his stone mansion on 
the Mohawk. Two years later, Montcalm', the new 
French general, sweeping down from Canada, captured" 
and destroyed Fort William Henry, although General 
Webb was at Fort Edward, fourteen miles below, with 
6000 men lying idle in camp. 

2. Attack on Ticonderoga (1758). — On a calm Sunday 
morning, about four months before the fall of Fort 
Duquesne, a thousand boats full of British soldiers, with 
waving flags and strains of martial music, swept down Lake 

■ AbaudoDin}! and destroyiug Louisburg, the English made Halifax, as it is to-day, 
their chief stronghold in that region. 

2 This victory is noted for an illustration of savage treachei-y. The British garrison 
had been guaranteed a safe escort to Fort Kdward. But tliey had scarcclj' left tlie fort 
when the Indians fell upon them to plunder and to slaughter. In vain did the French 
oflSccrs peril their lives to save their captives from tlu^ lawless tomahawk. '• Kill mc," 
cried Montcalm, in desperation, "but spare the En^'lish who arc. under my protec- 
tion." The Indian fury, however, was implacable, and the march of the prisoners to 
Fort Edward became a flight for life. 



1759] FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR ■ 07 

George to attack Tieoiideroga. General Ab'ercrombie, far 
away in the rear, ordered an assault before his artillery 
came up. A disastrous repulse was the result.' 

3. Capture of hotli Forts (1759). — The next year, at the 
approach of General Amherst with a large army, the 
French evacuated both Ticonderoga and Crown Point. 

4. Niagara. — 1. About the time of Braddock's expedition, 
General Shirley marched to capture Fort Niagara. But 
reaching Oswego and learning of Braddock's disastrous 
defeat, he was discouraged. He simply built a fort and 
came home. The next year that indefatigable French 
general, Montcalm, crossed the lake from Canada and 
captured this fort with its garrison and a large amount of 
public stores. 

2. Nothing further was done toward the capture of Fort 
Niagara till the year 1759, when it was invested by an 
army under General Prideaux (prid'o), and was at last 
compelled to surrender, 

5. Quebec (1759). — The same summer in which Forts 
Niagara, Crown Point, and Ticonderoga were occupied by 
the British, General Wolfe anchored with a large fleet and 
8000 soldiers in front of Quebec. Opposed to him was the 
vigilant French general, Montcalm, with a command equal 
to his own. The British cannon easily destroyed the lower 
city next the river, but the citadel, being on higher ground, 
was far out of their reach. The bank of the river, for 
miles a high craggy wall, bristled with cannon at every 
landing place. For months Wolfe lingered before the city, 
vainly seeking some feasible point of attack. Carefully 

1 While the army was delaying after this failure, Colonel Bradstreet obtained per- 
mission to lead part of it against Fort Fronteuac, on the present site of Kingston. 
Ascending the Mohawk and crossing Lake Ontario, he captured the fort and a large 
quantity of stores intended for Fort Duquesne. The loss disheartened the garrison of 
the latter place, frightened off their Indian allies, aud did much to cause its evacuar 
tion on the approach of the English (pp. 91, 95). 



98 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 



[1759 



reconnoitering the precipitous bluff above the city, his 
sharp eyes at length discovered a narrow path winding 
among the rocks to the top, and he determined to lead his 
army up this ascent. To distract the enemy's attention, 
ho took his men several miles up the river. Thence drop- 
ping down silently^ by night with the ebb tide, they landed, 
clambered up the steep cliff, quickly dispersed the guard, 
and, at daybreak, stood arrayed in order of battle on the 

Plains of Abraham. 
Montcalm, aston- 
ished at the audac- 
ity of the attempt, 
could scarcely be- 
lieve it possible. 
When convinced of 
its truth, he at once 
made an impetuous 
attack. AVolfe's vet- 
erans held their fire 
until the French 
were close at hand, 
then poured upon 
them rapid, steady 
volleys. The enemy 
soon wavered. Gen- 
eral Wolfe, placing 

CLIMIJING TllK ULl FF AUOVIi QUIOBEC. llimSClf at thC llCad, 




' General Wolfe was a frrcat ailiuircr <>f tbt; poet (Jray. On the l)eaiitifiil staiiight 
evening of tlie attack, be reinarkt'd to tboHo iu the lH>at with liiiii, " I would rather be 
the author of the Elegy in a Countri/ Cfiurrhi/itrd than to have the glory of beating 
the French tomorrow!" and amid the ripjiliug of the water and the dashing of the 
oare, he repeated : 

"The boast of hernldry, the pon))* of power. 

And .all that lieauty, all that wealth e'er gave, 
AwaitH alike the inevitable hour; 
The paths of glory lead but to the grave." 



1759] FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 99 

now ordered a bayonet charge. Already twice wounded, lie 
still pushed forward. A third ball struck him. He was 
carried to the rear. " They run ! They run ! " exclaimed 
the officer on whom he leaned. " Who run 1 " he faintly 
gasped. " The French," was the reply. " Now God be 
praised ; I die happy ! " murmured the expiring hero. 
Montcalm, too, was fatally wounded as he was vainly try- 
ing to rally the fugitives. On hearing that he could not 
live more than twelve hours, he said, " So much the 
better. I shall not see the surrender of Quebec ! " 

Five days afterwards (September 18, 1759), the city and 
garrison capitulated. 

Close of the War in Canada. — The five places which were 
especially sought by the British were now all captured. 
Canada itself, worn out, impoverished, and almost in 
famine because of the long war, was ready for peace. 
Early in 1760, however, an attempt was made to recapture 
Quebec. But a powerful fleet arrived from England in time 
to raise the siege. A largo army under General Amherst 
marched upon Montreal, and Canada soon submitted. 
The British flag now waved over the continent, from the 
Arctic Ocean to the Mississippi. 

Spain having joined France in the war against Great 
Britain, preparations were made to attack her important 
colonies. An army of British soldiers and American col- 
onists took Havana (1762), the capital of Cuba, after a 
terrible and costly siege of two months. Another British 
army captured Manila, the capital of the Philippines. 

Peace was made at Paris in 1763. Spain ceded Florida 
to Great Britain in ej^change for Havana, which, like 
Manila, was restored to the Spanish. France gave up to 
Great Britain all her territory east of the Mississippi, ex- 
cept New Orleans and two small islands south of New- 



B. HIST. U. S. 



100 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES [1764 

fouiidland ; while to Spain she ceded New Orleans and all 
her territory west of the Mississippi. 

Great Britain's American territory was thus greatly in- 
creased. In the north she now marked out new boundaries 
for the province of Quebec. In the south she divided 
Florida into the two jirovinces of East and West Florida. 
Then, in order to confine the colonies along the seaboard 
strictly to the region east of the mountains, she proclaimed 
the vast interior of virgin forests and fertile prairie to be 
Indian country into which colonists might not intrude 
with settlements. 

Pontiac's War. — The Freiuh traders and missionaries 
had won the hearts of the Indians. When the more 
haughty British came to take possession of the western 
forts, great discontent was aroused. Pon'tiac, a chief of 
the Ottawas, formed a confederation of the tribes against 
the common foe. It was secretly agreed to fall upon all 
the British posts at once. Eight forts were thus surprised 
and captured.' Thousands of persons fled from their 
homes to avoid the scalping knife. At last, the Indians, 
disagreeing among themselves, deserted the alliance, and 
a treaty was signed. Pontiac, still revengeful, fled to the 
hunting grounds of the Illinois. He was killed (1769), 
at Cahokia, by an Indian, for the bribe of a barrel of liquor. 

1 Various stratagems were employed to accomplish their designs. At Fort Miami, 
on the jNIauinee, a squaw lured forth the commander by imploring aid for an IinHau 
woman dying outside the fort. Ouce without, he was at tlie mercy of the ambushed 
savages. At Mackinaw, hundreds of Indians had gathered. Commencing a game at 
ball, one party drove the other, as if by accident, toward the fort. The soldiers were 
attracted to watch the game. At length the ball was thrown over the pickets, and 
the Indians, jumping after it, began the terrible butdiery. The commander, Ma,ior 
Henry, writing in his room, heard the war cry and tlie shrieks of the victims, and, 
rushing to his window, beheld the savage work of the tomahawk and the scalping 
knife. Amid untold perils, ho himself escaped. At Detroit, the plot was betrayed (by a 
squaw, according to some acconrts), and when the chiefs wen; admitted to th' ir pro- 
posed council for " brightening the chain of friendship," they found themselves sur- 
rounded by an armed garrison. Pontiac and his wari-iors, however, were allowed to 
depart. Two days after, be l)egau a siege which lasted several mouths. 




101 



102 THE THIRTEEN COL(JNIES 

Effects of the French and Indian War. — During this war, 
the colonists spent $1(),()0(),0()0, and (Jreat Britain repaid 
only $5,000,000. The Americans lost 30,000 meii, and suf- 
fered the untold horrors of Indian barbarity. The taxes 
sometimes equaled two thirds the income of the taxpayer, 
but were paid without resistance, because levied by the 
colonists themselves. Men of different colonies and 
diverse ideas fouglit shoulder to shoulder, and many sec- 
tional jealousies were allayed. They learned to think and 
act independently of the mother country, and thus came 
to know their strength. Democratic ideas had taken root. 
Legislative bodies had been called, troops raised, and sup- 
plies voted, not by Great Britain, but by themselves. 
They had become fond of liberty. They knew their rights 
and dared maintain them. When they voted money, they 
kept the purse in flieir own hands. 

The treatment of the British officers also helped to unite 
the colonists. They made sport of the awkward provin- 
cial soldiers. The best American officers were often thrust 
aside to make place for young British subalterns. But, in 
spite of sneers, Washington, Gates, Montgomery, Stark, 
Arnold, Morgan, Putnam, all received their training, and 
learned how, when the time came, to fight even British 
regulars. 

COLLATERAL READINGS 

Opening of French anil Indian War.— Pai'kiuau's Wolfe uiul iloitlvulin, vol. i. 
pp. 128-i:i6, 142-147, l.^l-lGl. 

Kxpulsinn of Acacllans.— Farkinan's Wolfe and ifontcalm, vol. i. pp. 266-284. 
Fall of Quebec— i'arkiuau's Wolfe and Montcalm, vdl. ii. pp. 280-297. 

XV. COLONIAL SOCIETY 

Population. — There were now thirteen British colonies 
in North America, besides Quebec, Nova Scotia, and the 



COLONIAL SOCIETY 103 

Floridas. They contained nearly 2,000,000 people. The 
largest city was Philadelphia, with about 25,000 inhab- 
itants. In every colony most of the people were Protes- 
tants, but the intolerant religious spirit of early days 
had moderated. 

In all the colonies there were many white indented serv- 
ants — persons who were bound to service for some fixed 
period of time, during which they were little better than 
slaves. There were also negro slaves in every colony, 
those in the North being chiefly house servants. 

Government. — In each of the colonies the taxes were 
levied and the laws were made ' by a colonial assembly, 
members of which were elected by the people. The chief 
officer in each colony was the governor; and by the 
method in which the governor was chosen, the colonies 
may be divided into three classes: charter, royal, and 
proprietary. In Rhode Island and Connecticut the gov- 
ernors were elected by the people, as their charters pro- 
vided. New Hampshire, Massachusetts, New York, New 
Jersey, Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia were royal 
colonies, for their governors were appointed by the king. 
The heirs of Penn appointed the governor of Pennsyl- 
vania and Delaware, and the heir of Lord Baltimore 
appointed the governor of Maryland ; these were pro- 
prietary colonies. 

Most of the offices were held by members of a few lead- 
ing families, and sometimes descended from father to son. 

The Southern colonies were divided into counties for 
local government. New England had instead the smaller 

' In accordance with the customs of the age, the laws were sevrre. There were 
twelve to seventeen offenses punishable by death. The affairs of private life were reg- 
ulated by law in amanner that would not now be endured. At JTartford, for example, 
the ringing of the watchman's bell in the morning was the signal for every one to 
rise; and in Massachusetts a scold was sometimes gagged and placed near her door, 
while for other minor offenses the offender was confined in the stocks or the pillory. 



104 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 



division called the town, governed chiefly by the whole 
body of citizens assembled in " town meeting." ' In the 
Middle colonies there were both counties and towns. 
These differences in the form of local government have 
persisted in large part to our own time. 

Travel. — The usual mode of travel was on foot or horse- 
back, or by means of coasting sloops. The trip from New 

York to Philadelphia 
occupied three days if 
the wind was fair. Un- 
til after the Revolu- 
tion, the mails were 
carried by post riders 
on horseback.^ Even 
a bridegroom, w^ere he 
rich or poor, who 
sought a wife in a dis- 
tant inland town, rode 
there on horseback 
and brought his bride 
home on a pillion be- 
hind him. There were 

TRAVi.i IN(. (IN it(ii:M.l;A( w. , i i i i • i 

tew wheeled vehicles 
until near the end of the colonial period, and even these 
few went out of use during the Revolution. 

The first stage began running between New York and 
"Philadelphia in 1756, and required three days to make the 

• The town meeting was of inestimable value in cultivating dcmoeratir ideas. The 
young and old, rich and poor, here met on a perfect equality to decide local questiouH 
of government. 

2 A mail was started in 1072 between New York and Boston, by way of Hartford, 
the round trip being inadt- monthly. In time a pont-o(flcc syatcm was eflfccted by the 
combination of the mloiiius, but the only post offices were in a few of the largest cities. 
Benjamin Franklin was one of the early postmasters general. Accompanied by bis 
daughter Sally, he made a grand tour of the country in his chaise, perfecting and 
maturing the plan. It took five months to make the rounds which could now be made 
in as many days. 




COLONIAL SOCIETY 105 

trip. When, ten years later, the time was reduced to 
two days, the conveyance, "a good wagon with seats on 
springs," was called a flying machine ! 

Manners and Customs. — The colonists had brought with 
them the ideas and tastes of the mother country, and 
these long survived in spite of the leveling tendencies and 
the free spirit of the New World. The catalogues of 
Harvard and Yale were long arranged according to the 
rank of the students' families. Distinctions of dress, to 
mark the higher and the lower ranks of society, as in 
Europe, were sedulously preserved throughout even demo- 
cratic New England. Calfskin shoes, up to the time of 
the Revolution, were the exclusive property of the gentry ; 
the servants wore coarse cowhide. Farmers, mechanics, 
laborers, and workingmen generally were clothed in red 
or green baize jackets, leather or striped ticking breeches, 
and a leather apron. The stiff, hard leather breeches 
were greased and blacked, and the heavy cowhide shoes, 
homemade, were set off by huge brass buckles. Hired 
women wore short gowns of green baize and petticoats 
of linsey-woolsey. 

The colonial gentleman, however, was gay in his morn- 
ing costume of silk or velvet dressing gown and cap, and 
his evening attire of blue, green, or purple flowered silk or 
handsomely embroidered velvet, enriched with gold or 
silver lace, buttons, and knee buckles. Wide lace ruffles 
fell over his hands ; his street cloak glittered with gold 
lace; and a gold-headed cane and a gold or silver snuff- 
box were indispensable signs of his social position. 

The Neiv England people were strict in morals. Gov- 
ernor Winthrop prohibited cards and gaming tables. A 
man was whipped for shooting fowl on Sunday. The 
names of drunkards were posted up in the alehouses, and 



lOG 



THF, THIRTEEN COLONIES 




the keepers were forbidden to sell them liquor. Conduct 
was shaped by a literal interpretation of the Scriptures. 
The ministers had, at first, almost entire control. A church 

reproof was the 
heaviest punish- 
ment, and knotty 
points in theology 
caused the bitterest 
discussions.* 

Only the gentil- 
ity, including min- 
isters and their 
wives, graduates of 
colleges, and those 
who held office, had 
Mr. or Mrs. pre- 
fixed to their names. 
Others, above the 
rank of servant, 
were called Good- 
man or Goodwife. 

New England 
farm and village life 
presented a strange 
contrast to that 
with which we are familiar. The first house of the settler 
was built of logs, the chinks daubed with clay, and the roof 
thatched with long grass. In the later and better class 

' In the early Plymouth days, every house was opened on Sunday morning at the 
tap of the drum. The men and the women, the former armed to the teeth, assembled 
in front of the captain's house. Three abreast, they marched to tlie meetinghouse, 
where every man set down his musket within easy reach. The elders nnd deacons 
took their seats in front of the preacher's desk. The old men, the young men, the 
young women, and the older ones each had tljeir separate place. The boys were kept 
in order by a constable. The services began with a loug pniyei', which was followed 




I.N A NKW K.NGLAND .MLKTINGIIOUSK. 



COLONIAL SOCIETY 107 

of dwellings, the logs were hewn square so as to need 
no chinking; or a frame was made of heavy oak timbers, 
well mortised and braced together, the sides were cov- 
ered with split oak clapboards, and the roof with split 
cedar shingles, fastened with large wrought-iron nails. 
The windows consisted of two small lead frames, set with 
a few tiny diamond-shaped panes of glass (or sometimes 
oiled paper),^ and hinged so as to open outward against 
the house. The doors were of oak plank, and were 
securely fastened at night by heavy wooden crossbars. 

In the center of the house, or externally in the poorer 
dwellings, rose a stone or brick chimney, about twelve 
feet square at the base," affording a fireplace large euongh 
for seats to be placed at the side, where the children could 
sit in the winter evening and look up at the stars. To 
" lay the fire" was no small matter: for the back, a huge 
" back log," perhaps four feet long, was rolled in ; then 
on the andirons was placed a " front log"; between these 
were piled enormous quantities of smaller wood.^ 

The kitchen and the " best room " were the chief apart- 
ments. In the kitchen the center of attraction was the 

T)y reading and expounding of tbe Scriptures, a psalm,— lined by one of the ruling 
elders,— and the sermon. Instrumental music was absolutely proscribed. The ser- 
mon was often three or four hours Jong, and at the end of each hour the sexton 
turned the hourglass wliich stood upon the desk. Woe to the youngster whose eyelids 
drooped in slumber! The constable, with his wand tipped on one extremity with the 
foot and on the other with the tail of a hare, brought the heavier end down on the 
nodding head. The careworn matron who was betrayed into a like offense was re- 
minded of her duty by a touch on the forehead with the softer end of the wand. 

1 As the .building .stood exactly facing the south, the sun ".shone square in*' at 
noon, and gave warning of the dinner hour. 

'^ In the better houses a brick oven was built beside the chimney. This was heated 
by a fire of fine " kindlings," then swept clean, and the bread or bean.s set iu to bake. 
The bricks retained the high temperature for a long time, and the famous " rye and 
Indian " bread was left in the oven all night. 

3 Friction matches had not been invented, and the fire was carefully kept over 
night in the ashes. If it unfortunately " went out," it was relighted by sparks from 
the fliut-and-steel, or by live coals brought from a neighbor's hearth. 



lOS 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 



gi'eat fireplace, witli its swinging crane and pothooks to 
hold the iron pots for cooking.' The room was rarely 
seven feet high, and from the bare joists overhead hung 
bunches of herbs, seed corn, and long strings of drying 
apples. The furniture was plain : a tall wooden clock ; a 




A COLONIAL KITCIIKN. 

high-backed wooden settle; a dresser set out with the 
cherished pewter dishes brought over from England; a 
spinning wheel ; and, perhaps, a loom for weaving. 

> The food Wiis served Kf^nerally on wooden platters. It was plentiful and coarse. 
Fresh meat was rarely seen, except when Ranie was taken The staple diet con- 
sisted of salt pork or heef, salt tish, vegetables, and "rye and Indian" l>read or " han- 
nocks"— flat cakes of Indian meal or rye baked over the hot eoala on the hearth. 
The farmer's breakfast often consisted mainly of "bean porridpe" seasoned with 
savory herbs. The minister, we are told, had white bread provided for him as a 
special favor. Ice in summer was unheard of, and the careful housekeeper cooled her 
butter by haugiug it in u ptul down the well. 



COLONIAL SOCIETY 109 

The " best room " was used only on state occasions. 
Ordinarily it was carefully closed and locked to keep out 
the flies and preserve its sacred precincts from unlawful 
intruders/ The andirons were of brass that shone like 
gold. On the mantelshelf stood the high brass candle- 
sticks and the accompanying tray and snuffers. There 
were no rugs or carpets, but the floor was sanded and 
marked off by the housewife in many a quaint design. 
Against the walls hung the family paintings, fondly 
cherished as mementos not only of the departed, but also 
of the life beyond the seas. Here, too, was the library 
containing a few well read books — for books were scarce 
and costly, and reading was a serious matter, taken up 
for improvement and not for pastime.^ Among those few 
books were sure to be found the family Bible, Bunyan's 
Pilgrim's Progress^ Young's Night Thoughts^ Watts's Im- 
provement of the Mind,, Fox's Book of Martyrs,, Addison's 
Spectator, and Milton's Paradise Lost. 

The Middle Colonies. — The manners of the New York 
people were essentially Dutch. Many customs inaugurated 
during Dutch rule still remain in vogue. To the Dutch 
we owe our Christmas visit of Santa Glaus, the custom 
of calling on New Year's Day, colored eggs at Easter, 
doughnuts, and crullers. 

' Not only the best room but also the front door and the front yard were considered 
too good for everyday use. The front yard was carefully fenced off from the portion of 
the premises to which ordinary people had access. The path through it to the front 
door was bordered by narrow beds of " posies," including hollyhocks, sunflowers, 
lilacs, pinks, sweet Williams, peonies, etc. ; but our great-grandmothers had no gera- 
niums or verbenas. 

2 As the tiny windows gave little light by day, so by night the homemade tallow can- 
dles, or the pine knot on the hearth, shed but a faint or flickering ilhmiination. In cold 
weather the lire was heaped high, —for wood was abundant, — but through numerous 
chinks and crevices the winter air poured in, so that, as an old writer remarks, " while 
one side of the inmate was toasting, the other was freezing." To make matters still 
worse, the smoke escaping into the room by no means favored study or any other em- 
ployment requiring the use of the eyes. 



110 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 



The Dutch mansion was built usually of brick. Its 
gable end, receding in regular steps from the base of the 
roof to the summit, faced the street. The front door was 
decorated with a huge brass knocker, burnished daily. 




nnTcii HonsKs tn new amstkrdam. 



While the Connecticut mistress si)un, wove, and stored her 
household linens in crowded chests, the Dutch matron 
scrubbed and scoured her floor and woodwork. The happy 
burghers breakfasted at dawn, dined at eleven, and retired 
at sunset. On dark evenings, as a guide for belated wan- 
derers, lighted candles were placed in the front windows. 

In Pennsylvania there were more Germans and Scotch- 
Irish than in any other colony, and also many people of 
several other nationalities. But the English Quakers 
were the most influential in forming the character of the 



COLONIAL SOCIETY 



111 



colony. Philadelphia was famous for its flagged sidewalks, 
— then a rare luxury in any city, — for the regularity of its 
streets, and the elegance of its brick and stone residences. 
The trees bordering the carriageways and the gardens 
and orchards about the houses made it just such a "fair 
greene country town " as Penn wished it to be. 

The Southern Colonists differed widely from the Northern 
in habits and style of living. In place of thickly settled 
towns and villages, they had large plantations, and each 
family was surrounded by a numerous household of serv- 
ants. The negro quarters formed a hamlet apart, with 

its gardens and 
poultry yards. An 
estate in those days 
was a little empire. 
The planter had 
among his slaves 
men of every trade. 





A VIRGINIA MANSION. 

and they made upon 

the plantation most of 

the articles needed for 

common use. There 

were large sheds for 

curing tobacco, and 

mills for grinding corn and wheat. The tobacco was pat 

up and consigned directly to England. 

The heads of these great Southern families lived like 



KEGKO QIARTKRS. 



112 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

lords, keeping their packs of choice hunting dogs and 
their stables of blooded horses. 

Their spacious mansions were sometimes built of im- 
ported brick. Within, the grand staircases, the mantels, 
and the wainscot reaching from floor to ceiling, were of 
solid mahogany, elaborately carved and paneled. The 
sideboards shone with gold and silver plate, and the 
tables were loaded with the luxuries of the Old World. 
All labor was done by slaves. Even the superintend- 
ence of the plantation and slaves was often committed to 
overseers, while the naaster dispensed a generous hospi- 
tality and occupied himself with social and political life. 

Education. — Tlie Eastern Colonies. — Next to their re- 
ligion the Puritans prized education. When Boston was 
but six years old, money was appropriated to the seminary 
at Cambridge, which afterwards grew to be Harvard Col- 
lege (1636). For a time each family gave a peck of corn 
or a shilling in cash for its support. Common schools had 
already been provided, and soon (1647) every town was 
ordered to have a free school, and, if it contained over 
100 families, a grammar school. In Connecticut, any 
town that did not keep a school for three months in the 
year was liable to a fine. In 1700 ten ministers brought 
together a number of books for the founding of Yale 
College. This was first established at Saybrook, but was 
soon removed to New Haven. 

The Middle Colonies had many schools scattered through 
the towns. In the English period some of the schools 
were kei)t by Dutch masters, who taught English as an 
accomplishment.' Delaware is said to have hadj the 

1 As early as 1702 an act was passed for the " Encoui-agement of a Grammar Free 
School ill the. City of Nt!W York." lu 1795 (Jcorge ("liutoii laid the fouudation of the 
comiiiou-8(!liool nystfiii of the State, aud wlthiu three years uearly 60,000 children were 
receiviug iustnution. 



COLONIAL SOCIETY 



113 







OLD SWEDISH CHUKCH, WILMINGTON, DEL. 



first girls' school in the colonies. The first school in Penn- 
sylvania was started the year Philadelphia was founded. 
The orrery in- 
vented by Dr. Rit- 
tenhouse (1768) is 
still preserved in 
the college at 
Princeton.^ No Eu- 
ropean institution 
had its equal. 

Churches were 
established by the 
various denomina- 
tions. The Swedes 
had a meetinghouse before the landing of Penn. Minis- 
ters' salaries were generally paid in produce — wheat, 
corn, beans, bacon, wood, etc. The Dutch domine of 
Albany on one occasion received 150 beaver skins. 

The Southern Colonies met with great difficulties in 
their efforts to establish schools. Virginia can boast of 
the second oldest college in the colonies, — William and 
Mary (1692), the only one aided by the English govern- 
ment, — yet her English governors bitterly opposed the 
progress of education. Governor Berkeley, of whose 
haughty spirit we have already heard, said, "I thank 
God there are no free schools nor printing presses here, 
and I hope we shall not have them these hundred years." ^ 

' Princeton College was the fourth to be founded in the colonies (1746) ; later came 
the University of Pennsylvania (1749), Columbia, originally King's College (1754), 
Brown University (1764), Dartmouth (1769), and Rutgers (1770). 

2 The earliest newspaper in Virginia was published in 1736 under government con- 
trol. The first printing press in' the colonies was set up at Cambridge in 1639. Most of 
the books of that day were collections of sermons. The first permanent newspaper, 
the Boston News Letter, was published in 1704. In 1750 there were only seven news- 
papers. The American Daily Advertiser, the first daily paper, was not issued till 1784. 



114 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

Free schools were established in Maryland in 1696, and a 
free school in Charleston in 1712. Private schools were 
early established by the colonists in every neighborhood. 
A farm of 100 acres was set apart by law for each 
clergyman, and also a portion of the "best and first 
gathered corn " and tobacco. Fines were imposed for ab- 
sence from church. In Georgia, masters were compelled 
to send their slaves to church, under a penalty of a fine. 



XVI. GOLONIAL INDUSTRIES 

In colonial times nearly all kinds of industry were car- 
ried on in ways very different from those, of to-day. 
There was very little machinery in the country, and many 
tools that are now common were unknown ; therefore it 
took much more labor to produce a bushel of wheat, or a 
pair of shoes, or a' pound of nails. The people also lacked 
very many things necessary to our comfort and conven- 
ience to-day, either because such articles had not yet 
been invented, or because they cost too much. As life 
was thus simpler, there were fewer distinct occupations 
than now; instead of the thousands of different employ- 
ments now found in our country, there were then perhaps 
a hundred. 

In general, the Southern colonies were engaged in agri- 
culture, and the Northern colonies in agriculture and 
commerce. Much lumber was produced in several 
colonies, many ships were built, and many New Eng- 
landers were fishermen. Some manufacturing was carried 
on, mostly in the homes of the people, and with very sim- 
ple, handmade machinery. A little iron was produced 
in nearly every colony, but only in Virginia and Maryland 
were the mines of much importance. 



COLONIAL INDUSTRIES 



115 




COLONIAL PLOW. 



Agriculture. — In farming, the chief occupation of the 
country, the colonists had the advantage of a fertile soil ; 
but no pains were then taken to preserve it by the 
use of fertilizers and by the rotation of crops. Land 
was plentiful and cheap, and when one field was 
worn out it was abandoned for a new 
one. The farming 
implements were few 
and clumsy com- 
pared with those used by 
farmers to-day. Grain, the 
crop of the Middle colonies, 
was sown by hand, reaped 
with sickles, and thrashed with flails or trodden out by 
horses and cattle. Grass was cut with scythes, and the 
hay was gathered up with hand rakes. The Southern 
colonies produced much tobacco (then the most valuable 
export of the country), rice, and indigo. Various 
crops were raised in all the colonies for the food of the 
people; but many common vegetables, such as potatoes, 
tomatoes, and asparagus, were not used by the first set- 
tlers.^ As at present, the supply of beef and pork was not 
only sufficient for home consumption, but also formed an 
important export. But both then and for many years 
thereafter meat was preserved by salting. 

Many sheep were raised for their wool, but, like the 
cattle, they were not generally of such good breeds as those 
common in our day. Besides wool, practically the only 

1 The potato was originally a native of tropical America; it was iinproved by culti- 
vation in Europe, and was broui^bt over here in tbe eighteenth century by Scotch emi- 
griints who obtained it first from Ireland. Tomatoes, or, as they were called, "love 
apples," were thought to be poisonous, and were cultivated only in the flower garden 
for the beauty of the bright red fruit. Among other things not used in colonial times 
were rhubarb, sweet corn, cantaloupes, head lettuce, and all the newer and finer vari- 
eties of pears, grapes, peaches, and the like. 



IIG THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

fibers produced were flax, hemp, and silk. The cotton 
raised was quite insignificant in quantity. The produc- 
tion of raw silk in Georgia and the Carolinas was for 
many years encouraged by English laws, and became of 
considerable importance. Afterwards, much silk was pro- 
duced in Connecticut and some other Northern colonies. 

Manufactures. — Great forests supplied plenty of fuel, and 
enough lumber was sawed for the needs of the colonies, 
besides some for export. Much wood was burned merely 
for the ashes, from which were made potash and pearlash 
— exports of much value. 

. Among the chief colonial manufactures were flour, 
leather and leather goods, hats, brick, and coarse cloths 
and clothing made mostly in the household.^ 

The colonists had also made a beginning in the manu- 
facture of salt, paper, glass, and ironware ; but the main 
supply of these and a great many other manufactured 
articles came from abroad, chiefly from England. 

Commerce. — Colonial trade was largely in the hands of 
Englishmen; but in the North, and especially in New 
England, were many colonists who followed the sea for a 
livelihood. Dried and salted fish was the chief export of 
New England. This was carried by New Englanders, in 
their own ships, to the colonies farther south and to the 
West Indies, where perhaps molasses would be bought 
for the return voyage. A few New England cap- 
tains engaged in the slave trade; they carried rum to 
Africa, exchanged it for slaves, carried the slaves to the 
West Indies (or to the Southern colonies), sold them at a 

' 111 bousehold niaiiufartnriiij; tli(> women played a very iinportant part. Besides 
spinning and weaving tlie llax and wool, they dyed, knit, made soap aud caudles, and 
did many otber tilings that girls nowadays never learn to do. Mrs. Washington, itjis 
said, kept sixteen spinning wheels running. The soldieis of the Kevolutiou were 
clad mainly in liomespuu. 



COLONIAL INDUSTRIES 117 

great profit, and eompleted the trip by carrying molasses 
from the West Indies to New England, where it was made 
into rum for use in the next voyage to Africa. Colonial 
ships also carried on a jmrt of the trade with Europe. So 
many ships were built in the colonies, especially in New 
England, that part of them were sold abroad. 

The money used in the colonies consisted mostly of 
Spanish silver and gold coins ; but money was very scarce, 
and domestic trade was largely by barter. In early 
colonial days tobacco served as money in Virginia, wam- 
pum in several colonies, and at one time musket balls 
were made to pass in place of farthings, the law providing 
that not more than twelve should be given in one pay- 
ment. The chief reason for the scarcity of money was 
the fact that the imports from England were worth more 
than the exports to England, so that the balance had to 
be paid in cash. For this state of affairs the English laws 
governing trade with the coloni.es were largely to blame. 

Transportation of freight was by water so far as possi- 
ble. On the bays and streams, ships could go far into 
the interior. There were no railroads and very few roads 
and wagons. Goods were carried long distances by pack 
animals; and in Virginia and Maryland great tobacco 
casks were sometimes rolled several miles to the nearest 
wharf. 




ROLLING TOBACCO TO THE WHARF. 
B. HIST. U. S. — 8 



118 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS 



1. Virginia. 



1. Character of the Colonists, 

2. John Smith. \ 
'i. The Second Charter. 

4. The " Starving Time." 

5. The Third Charter. 

5. Marriage nf Pocahontas. 

7. First Colonial Assembly. 

i. Prosperity of the Colony. 

?. .Shivery Introduced (1G19). 

X Iiiilian Troubles. 

I. Virsinia Becomes a Royal Province. 

i. Period of Oppression. 

i. Bacon s Rebellion. 



Ilia 9crvice«. 
Uiii adveutures. 



2. Mas.sachusetts. 

3. Maine and New Ilami 

4. Connecticut. 

5. Rhode I.slaud. 

6. New Yoi'ii. 

7. New Jersey. 



8, 9. Pennsylvania 

and Delaware. 



10. Maryland. 

11, 12. The Carolinas. 
13. Georgia. 



14. Intercolonial 

Wars (1680-176:5). 



15. Colonial Society. 

16. Colonial Industries. 



1. Plymouth Colony. 



2 Mass. Bay Colony. 



1. Landing of Pilerinis. 

2 Characti-r of hilgrnns. 

3 SulftringB of I'ilKrims. 

4. TUf Indians. 

5. rrugress ol Colony. 
1. Settlement. 

2 Jieligioua Disturliances. 
J Union of Colonies 
4. Knig Philip 8 War 
5 N £. a Koyal Province. 

6. Salem WitcUcrafl. 



Settlement. 

Peqnot War. 

The Three Colonies. 

Royal Charter. 

Settlement. 

Charters. 

Si^'ttlenient. 

Kour Dutch Governors. 

The English Governors, 

.Settlement. 

Bist and West Jersey 

New Jersey United. 

Settlement. 

Philadelphia Founded. 

The Great Law. 

Penn s Treaty 

Dela'vare 

I'enn s Heirs. 

.Mason and Dixon's Line. 

Settlement. 

The • harter. 

Civil Wars. 

Settlement. 

The Grand Model. 

Pirates. 

Indiati Troubles. 

North and South Carolina Separated 

King William's War \ 



a. Swedes and Dutch. 

b. William Penn. 



War [ 
War 



(lC8:)-97). 
Queen Anne's 

(1702-13). 
King George's 

(1744-48). 



French and Indian War 
(1754 -(53). 



1. Cause. 
h. Attacks upon tbe Colonists. 
r. Attacks by the Colonists. 
./. IVace. 



a. Cause. 

6. Washington's Journey. 

c. War ()i>en8. 

rf. Franklin's Plan of Onion. 

r. Five Objective Points. 

/. Spain. 

g. peace. 

A. Pontiac's War. 

i. ElfecU. 



EPOCH III.-THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 

Quarrels with the Mother Country. — For many years 
there had been a standing quarrel between the colonies 
and the British government concerning the Navigation 
Acts and other laws ^ restricting colonial trade and manu- 
facture. It was generally admitted that Parliament had 
power to make such laws, but they were considered op- 
pressive. As long as France, the bitter enemy of Grreat 
Britain, held the vast region north and west of the colo- 
nies, the British government did not think it wise to irri- 
tate the colonists too greatly. Therefore the Navigation 
Acts and other restrictive laws were not strictly enforced. 
The colonists became accustomed to evading them by trad- 
ing in foreign markets and by smuggling foreign goods 
into the colonies without paying the duty. 

Another standing quarrel was between the royal gov- 
ernors and the colonial assemblies. In theory, the Brit- 
ish sovereign was ruler of the colonies. The governors, 
as his agents, claimed supreme control in carrying dut his 
orders. But the colonial assembly held the pursestrings 
and often refused to do the governor's bidding.^ 

• These acts and laws restricted colonial trade in certain commodities to Britisli 
markets and British or colonial ships, taxed.the trade in other commodities, and either 
prohibited or greatly hampered manutacturiug in the colonies. 

- The governors were paid by grants made from time to time by the assemblies from 
taxes ■whicli the assemblies levied on the colonists. Thus, when the assembly was not 
pleased with the actions of the governor, it could gi-ant him no money or but little. 
Instead of this the governors often demanded a regular salary, but in vain. 

119 



120 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR [1761 

Causes of the Revolution. — The French and Indian War, 
by driving the French from America, rendered it less 
necessary for Great Britain to heed the wishes of the colo- 
nists. Accordingly, the British officers now began to en- 
foi-ce the odious Navigation Acts (17G1).' Moreover, the 
British Parhament, urged on by King (feorge III., made a 
series of attempts to tax the colonists.' The colonists re- 
sisted these attempts, at first by peaceable means and 
finally by force of arms, declaring that " taxation without 
rei)resentation is tyranny." 

The Stamp Act (1765) ordered that stamps should be 
put on all legal documents, newspapers, pamphlets, etc. 
The money jmid for the stamps was a tax to support an 
army for the defense of the colonies. But the colonists, 
who insisted that they could be rightfully taxed only by 
their own assemblies, were thoroughly aroused by this law.'' 
The houses of British officials were mobbed. Prominent 
Loyalists were hanged in effigy. • Stamped paper was 
seized. The stamp agents were forced to resign. People 

' To enforce tlic Navigation Acts and put a stop to sinuRKlinp, the British offloors 
were granted writs of assistance, as thoy were caUcd, or warrants authorizing them to 
seareli for siniiggled goods. Under this pretext, a petty customhouse ollieial could 
enter any man's house or store at liis pleasure. The (rolonists resisted such search as a 
violation of their rights. James Otis, wlio resigned the ottice of advocate-general to 
argue the cause of the people in Bosftm, exclaimed, "To my dying day I will oppose, 
with all the powers and faculties God has given me, all such instruments of slavery on 
the onehand and villainy on the other." "Then and there," said John Adams, "the 
trumpet of the Revolution was sounded." 

- The colonists did not object to being taxed by 1 heir own assemblies whidi they 
themselves had elected, l)Ut maintained that Parliament had no right to tax them, be- 
cause they were not represented in Parliament — that is, they did not help to elect any 
of its members. 

3 The assembly of Virginia was the first to malce public opposition to this odious 
act. Patrick ITcnry, a brilliant young lawyer, introduced a resolution denying the 
right of Parliament to tax America. He boldly asserted that the king had i>layed the 
tyrant; and, alluding to the fate of other tyrants, exclaimed, " Ca*sar had his Brutus, 
Charles I. had his ("romwell, and George III.—" Here pausing till the cry of "Treason! 
Treason ! " from several parts of the house had ended, he deliberately added — " may 
profit by their example. If this be treason, make the most of it." 



1765] 



CAUSES 



121 



agreed not to use any article of British manufacture.' 
Associations, called the " Sons of Liberty," were formed 
to resist the law. Delegates from nine of the colonies 
met at New York (the " Stamp Act Congress ") and framed 
a Declaration of Rights, and a petition to the king and 




A SPINNING BKE. 

Parliament. The 1st of November, appointed for the 
Stamp Act to go into effect, was observed as a day of 
mourning. Bells were tolled, flags were raised at halfmast, 

' Tbe newspapers of the day mention many wealthy people who conformed to this 
agreement. On one occasion forty or fifty young kidies, who called themselves 
"Daughters of Liberty," brought their spinning wheels to the house of Rev. Mr. 
Morehead, in Boston, and during the day spun 232 skeins of yarn, which they pre- 
sented to their pastor. "Within eighteen months," wrote a gentleman at Newport, 
R. I., "487 yards of cloth and 3G pairs of stocliings have been spun and knit in the 
f.imily of James Nixon of this town." In Newport and Boston the ladies, at their 
tea drinkings, used, instead of imported tea, the dried leaves of the raspberry. 



12^ TIIK KEVULUTIUXAKY WAR [1766 

aud business was suspended. Samuel and John Adams, 
Patrick Henry, and James Otis, by their stirring and pa- 
triotic speeches, aroused the people over the whole land. 

Alarmed by these demonstrations, the British Parlia- 
ment repealed the Stamp Act (1766), but still declared its 
right to tax the colonies. 

The Townshend Acts, soon after passed by Parliament, 
laid a tax upon tea, glass, paper, etc., and established a 
Board of Trade at Bosto^i to act independently of the 
colonial assemblies. The money raised by the new 
tax was to pay the salaries of the colonial governors and 
other officers to be appointed by the crown. 

Mutiny Act. — Troops were sent from England to enforce 
the laws. The Mutiny Act ordered that the colonies 
should provide these soldiers with food and shelter. To 
be taxed illegally was bad enough, but to support armed 
oppressors was unendurable. The New York assembly, 
having refused to comply, was forbidden to pass any 
legislative acts. 

The colonists, meanwhile, made new agreements not to 
buy any British goods till the duties were repealed. The 
Massachusetts assembly sent a circular letter to the other 
colonies, urging a union for redress of grievances. The 
king's secretary for colonial affairs ordered the assembly 
to rescind its action; but it almost unanimously refused. 
By this time the assemblies of nearly all the colonies had 
declared that Parliament had no right to tax them without 
their consent. 

Boston Massacre. — Boston being considered the hotbed 
of the rebellion. General Gage was sent thither with two 
regiments of troops. The people refused them shelter, but 
the Sons of Liberty allowed a part to sleep in Faneuil 
(fanll) Hall, while the rest encamped on the Common. 



1770] CAUSES 123 

Cannon were planted, sentries posted, and citizens chal- 
lenged. Frequent quarrels took place between the people 
and the soldiers. One day (March 5, 1770) a crowd of 
men and boys insulted the city guard. A fight ensued, in 
which three citizens were killed and eight wounded. Bells 
were rung, the country people rushed in to help the city, 
and it was with difficulty that quiet was restored.' 

Boston Tea Party (December 16, 1773). — Parliament, 
alarmed by the opposition of the colonists, rescinded the 
taxes, except that on tea — which was left to maintain the 
principle. Tea was now furnished at so low a price that, 
with the tax included, it was cheaper in America than 
in England. But the patriots were fighting for a great 
principle, not against a paltry tax. At Charleston the tea 
was stored away instead of being jilaced on the market.^ 
The tea ships at New York and Philadelphia were sent 
home. The British authorities refused to let the tea ships 
at Boston return. Thereupon, at a public meeting held in 
Old South Meetinghouse, it was decided that the tea should 
never be brought ashore. Men disguised as Indians 
boarded the vessels and emptied the tea into the water. 

The Climax Reached. — The British government at once 
retaliated. The charter of Massachusetts was annulled, 
and General Gage was appointed military governor of the 
colony. The port of Boston was ordered closed'' until 
the tea should be paid for, thus stopping business and 
causing great distress. The Virginia assembly protested 

• The soldiers were tried for ujui'der. John Adams and Josiah Quincy, who stood 
foremost in opposition to British a.^gi'essio]i, defended them. All were acquitted 
except two, who were found guilty of nianslauf,'hter. 

2 After the outbreak of the Revolution, this tea was sold by the government of 
South Carolina, and the proceeds were applied to the public service. 

3 Marblehead and !*alem, refusing to profit by the ruin of their rival, offered the use 
of their wharfs to the Boston merchants. Aid and sympathy were received from aU 
sid^s. Even distant Georgia donated 63 barrels of rice and $720 in monej'. 



124 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR [1774 

against this measure, and was dissolved by the governor. 
Party lines were drawn. Those resisting the king were 
termed Whigs, and those supporting him, Tories or Loy- 
alists.' Everywhere were repeated the thrilling words of 
Patrick Henry, "Give me liberty or give me death." 
Companies of militia termed " minutemeu " were formed. 
The idea of a continental union became popular. Gage, 
being alarmed, fortified Boston Neck, and seized powder 
wherever he could find it. Only a spark was needed to 
kindle the slumbei'ing hatred into the flames of war. 

The First Continental Congress (September 5, 1774) was 
held in Philadelphia, and represented every colony except 
Georgia. As yet, few members had any idea of independ- 
ence. The Congress simply voted that obedience was 
not due to the recent acts of Parliament, and sustained 
Massachusetts in her resistance. It issued a protest 
against standing armies being kept in the colonies with- 
out the consent of the people, and agreed to hold no com- 
mercial intercourse with Great Britain." 

EVENTS OF 1775 

Battle of Lexington (April 1!)). — General Gage, learning 
that the people were gathering military stores at Concord, 
sent a force of 800 men to destroy them. The patriots of 
Boston, however, were on the alert, and hurried out mes- 
sengers to alarm the country.^ When the redcoats, as the 

' About a thiri of tbo American people were Tories, and both Wbigs and Tories in- 
cluded persons of every class and character, from the noblest to the meanest. Durini; 
and after the Revolution thousands of tlie Loyalists were deprived of their property 
and were obliged to flee from the country. 

- It also i)rcpared addresses to the king, to the people of Great Britain, and to the 
Canadians; and fixed the date for the meeting of a second Congress the next year. 

■' Paul Revere caused two lights to be hung up in the steeple of Old North Church. 
They were seen in Charlestown ; messengers set out, and he soon followed on his 
famous midnight ride. (Read Longfellow's poem.) 



1775] 



LEXINGTON AND CONCORD 



125 




LEXINGTON, CONCORD, AND BUNKER HILL. 



British soldiers were called, reached Lexington, they 
found a company of minutemen gathering on the village 
green. The British commander shouted, " Disperse, you 
rebels ; lay down your arms ! " They hesitated. A skirmish 
ensued, which cost 
the lives of eight 
Americans — the 
first martyrs of the 
Eevolution. 

The British sol- 
diers pushed on to 
Concord and de- 
stroyed the stores. 
But, alarmed by the 
gathering militia, 
they hastily retreated. It was none too soon. The whole 
region flew to arms. From behind trees, fences, buildings, 
and rocks, in front, flank, and rear, so galling a fire was 
poured that, but for reenforcements from Boston, none of 
the British would have reached the city alive- As it was, 
they lost nearly 300 men. 

Effects. — The news that American blood had been 
shed flew like wildfire. Patriots came pouring in from 
all sides. Putnam,' without changing his working clothes, 
mounted his horse and rode all the way to Boston, over 
100 miles. Soon, 20,000 men were building intrench- 
ments to shut up the British in the city. Provincial con- 

1 Israel Putnam, familiarly known as " Old Put," was bom in Salem, Mass., 1718. 
Many stories are told of hia great courage and presence of mind. When a youth he 
once crawled into a cave to shoot a wolf which had long defied attack. At Fort Ed- 
ward, when all others fled, he alone fought back the fire from a gunpowder magazine, 
protected by only a thin partition. In 17.58 a party of Indians took him prisoner, 
bound him to a stake, and made ready to torture him with fire. The flames were 
already scorching his limbs, and death seemed certain, when a French oflBcer burst 
through the crowd and saved his life. 



12G THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR [1775 

gresses were formed in the various colonies. Committees 
of safety were appointed to call out the militia and pro- 
vide for any emergency. The power of the royal govern- 
ors was broken from Massachusetts to Georgia. 

Battle of Bunker Hill (June 17). — The patriot loader, Gen- 
eral Ward, having learned that the British intended to for- 
tify Bunker Hill, sent Colonel Prescott to anticipate them. 




WATrillNG TIIK BATTLE OI" RtlXKKH iUi I,. 



Prescott and his men, however, set to work on Breeds 
Hill instead. It was bright moonlight, and they were so 
near Boston that the sentinel's "All's well ! " was distinctly 
heard. At daylight, the British oflScers were startled to 
see the redoubt which had been constructed. Eesolved to 



1776] BUNKER HILL 127 

drive the Americans from their position, General Howe 
crossed the river with. 3000 men. The roofs of Boston 
were crowded with spectators, intentlj^ watching the 
troops as they slowly ascended the hill. When the red- 
coats were within ten rods, a blaze of light shot from 
the earthworks, and whole platoons of the British fell. 
The survivors, unable to endure the terrible slaughter, 
broke and fled. They were rallied under cover of the 
smoke of Charlestown, which Gage had set on fire. 
Again they were met by that deadly discharge, and 
again they fled. Reen force ments being received, the third 
time they advanced. Only one volley smote them, and 
then the firing ceased. The American ammunition was 
exhausted. The British charged over the ramparts with 
fixed bayonets. The patriots gallantly resisted with 
clubbed muskets, but were soon driven from the field.' 

The JEffect of this first regular battle was that of a vic- 
tory for the Americans. Their untrained farmer soldiers, 
while ammunition lasted, had repulsed the British veter- 
ans. The determination to resist tyranny was intensified. 

Capture of Ticonderoga (May 10). — Ethan Allen- and 

1 As General Warren wa.s trying to rally the troops a British officer shot him. 
Warren had just received his appointment as major general, hut had crossed 
Charlestown Neck iu the midst of flying balls, reached the redoubt, and offered him- 
self as a volunteer. Gage said that his fall was worth that of 500 ordinary rebels. 

2 Ethan Allen was a native of Connecticut. He emigrated to Vermont, which was 
then part of the colony of New York, though this claim was violently disputed by 
New Hampshire. The governor of New Hampshire issued so many grants of land 
there that the region became known as X\ie. New Hampshire Grants. New York tried 
to eject those who held land under these grants. Ethan Allen became conspicuous in 
the resistance that ensued. The " Green Mountain Boys " made him their colonel, and 
he kept a watchful eye on the officers from New York who sought by form of law to 
dispossess the settlers of farms which had been bought and made valuable by their 
own labor. The Revolutionary War caused a lull in these hostilities, and the Green 
Mountain Boys turned tlieir arms upon the common enemy. Allen subsequently aided 
Montgomery in his Canadian expedition (pp. 128, 129), but, in a foolhardy attempt upon 
Montreal, was taken prisoner and sent to England: After a long captivity he was 
released, and returned home. Generous and frank, a vigorous writer, loyal to his coun- 
try and his friends, ho exerted a powerful influence on the early history of Vermont. 



128 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR [1775 

Benedict Arnold led a small company of volunteers to 
sui'prise the fortress of Tieoiideroga. As Allen rushed in, 
a sentinel snapped his gun at him and fled. Making his 
way to the commander's quarters, Allen, in a voice of 
thunder, ordered him to surrender. " By whose author- 
ity I " exclaimed the frightened othcer. " In the name 
of the great Jehovah and the Continental Congress!" 
shouted Allen. No resistance was attempted. Large 
stores of cannon and ammunition, then much needed by 
the troops at Boston, fell into the hands of the Americans, 
withoOt the loss of a man. Crown Point soon after was 
as easily taken. (Map, p. 132.) 

The Second Continental Congress (May 10) met at Phila- 
delphia in the midst of these stirring events. It voted to 
raise 20,000 men, and appointed General Washington 
commander in chief. A petition to King George III. was 
prepared, which he refused to receive. He declared that 
the colonists were rebels, and to subdue them he hired 
troops from the Count of Hesse Cassel ' and other petty 
German rulers. These acts destroyed all hope of recon- 
ciliation. 

Condition of the Army. — When Washington arrived be- 
fore Boston, and took command under the famous Cam- 
bridge Elm (July 3), the army imnibered but 14,000 men. 
Few of them were drilled; some were already weary of 
the hardships of war; all were badly clothed and poorly 
armed ; and there were loss than nine rounds of anununi- 
tion to each soldier, Washington made every exertion to 
relieve their wants, and meanwhile kepfGage penned up 
in Boston. 

Expedition against Canada. — Late in the summer Gen- 
eral Montgomery, leading an army by way of Lake 

' Hence these hired soldiers were callc-d Ucssiuns. 



1775] 



EXPEDITION AGAINST CANADA 



129 



Champlain, captured St. Johns and Montreal, and then 
appeared before Quebec. Here he was joined by Colonel 
Arnold with a crowd of half-famished men, who had 
ascended the Kennebec and then struggled through the 
wilderness. 

Attack upon Quebec. — Their united force was less than 
1000 effective men. Having besieged the city for three 




WASHINGTON TAKES COMMAND OF THE ARMY. 

weeks, they decided to risk an assault. In the midst of a 
terrible snowstorm they led their forces in a gallant 
attack, but the attempt failed.^ The Americans blockaded 

1 As Montgomery's men rushed forward, a rude blockhouse appeared through the 
blinding snow. Charging upon it, Montgomery fell at the first fire, and his followers, 
disheartened, fled. Arnold, meanwhile, approached the opposite side of the city. 
While bravely fighting, ho was severely wounded in. the leg and borne to the rear. 
Morgan, his successor, pressed on the attack, but, unable either to retreat or to ad- 
vance against the tremendous odds, was forced to surrender. 



130 THE Ki: VOLUTION AKY WAK [1776 

the city until spring, but at the approacli of British reen- 
forcements they were glad to escape, leaving Canada in 
the hands of Great Britain. 



EVENTS OF 1776 

Evacuation of Boston (March 17). — Washington, in order 
to compel the British to fight or run, sent a force to fortify 
Dorchester Heights by night. In the morning the British 
were once more astonished to see intrenchments which 
overlooked the city, and which were steadily made stronger. 
General Howe, who was then in command, remembering 
the lesson of Bunker Hill, set sail for Halifax with his 
army, fleet, and many Loyalists. The next day Washing- 
ton entered Boston amid great rejoicing.' 

Attack on Fort Moultrie (June 28). — Early in the sum- 
mer a British fleet appeared off Charleston and opened 
fire on Fort Moultrie (moo'tri).'- So fearful was the response 
from Moultrie's guns that the ships were disabled and 
forced to sail away. General Clinton, with some British 
troops, tried to attack the fort in rear, but the fire of 
the American riflemen was too severe. This victory de- 
lighted the colonists, as it was their fii-st encounter with 
the ships of the boasted " Mistress of the Seas." 

' For eleven months the inhabitants had endured the horrors of a siepe and the 
insolenee of the enemj-. Their houses )iad been pilhiged, thciv shops rifled, and their 
chur(;hes profaned. Even the boys in their sports had sometimes been wantonly 
annoyed by tlie British soldiers. A famous story is told of how the boys eomplained 
in vain to the British olBcers about their tranii)led enow hills and the spoiled ice of 
their skating pond, and at last took their story to General Gage himself, who was so 
struck with their sturdy appeal that he gave orders to stop the trouble. 

- The fort of palmetto logs was so called, alter this action, in honor of Colonel 
Moultrie, its gallant defender. Early in the action the llagstaflf was cut oflf by a ball. 
Sergeant .Jasper leai>ed over the breastwork, caught up tlie Hag, tied it to a sponge- 
staff (an instrument tor cleaning cannon), and hoistc<l it to its place. The next day 
Governor Rutledge offered him a lieutenant's eouunission. lie refused it, saying, 
"I am not fit for the company of ofllcers; I am only a sergeant." 



1776] 



DECLAEATION OF INDEPENDENCE 



131 



Declaration of Independence (July 4). — Richard Henry 
Lee, of Virginia, introduced in the Congress a resolution 
that " these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, 
free and independent States." This was passed (July 2) 
after each of the colonies had declared in favor of the 
separation from Great Britain. The report of the com- 




INDEPKNDENCE HALL, WHERE THE DECLARATION WAS ADOPTED, 



mittee' appointed to draw up a Declaration of Independ- 
ence was adopted on July 4.'- The war up to this time 

' Tboiiias Jeflferson, John Adams, Benjaniin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert 
R. Livingston composed this committee; but the Declaration was alinost whollj' from 
the pen of Jefferson. (Read the Declaration, in the appendix of this book.) 

2 The building in which Congress met, and in which the Declaration was adopted, 
was the Pennsylvania Statehouse, now called Independence Hall. In its steeple was 
a bell (in which, by a happy coincidence, was inscribed : "Proclaim Uberty throughout 
all the land unto all the inhabitants thereof." This famous " liibcrty Bell" played an 
important part in the celebration held after the first public reading of the Declaration 
(July 8). 



1776] CAMPAIGN NEAR NEW YORK 133 

had been fought merely to secure a redress of grievances; 
l)ut from now on it was a war for the Hfe of a new and in- 
dependent country.' 

Campaign near New York. — General Howe, after evacu- 
ating Boston, went to Halifax, but soon set sail for New 
York. Thither also came Admiral Howe, his brother, 
with reenforcements from England, and General Clinton 
from his defeat at Fort Moultrie. Washington, divining 
Howe's plans, now gathered his forces at New York to 
protect that city. His force was but one third as large as 
the British army. 

Battle of Long Island (August 27). — The British army 
lauded on the southwest shore of Long Island. General 
Putnam held a fort at Brooklyn and defenses on a range 
of hills south of the city. The English attacked the de- 
fenses in front and rear, with superior numbers. About 
one fourth of the Americans engaged were lost.^ 

Had Howe attacked the fort at Brooklyn immediately, 
the Americans might have been destroyed. Fortunately, 
he delayed for the fleet to arrive. On the second night 
after the battle, in a dense fog, the Americans moved 
silently down to the shore and crossed the river to New 
York. In the morning, when the sun scattered the fog, 
Howe was chagrine<l to find that his prey had escaped. 



1 The desire for iudcpendenoc, entertained at first by only a very few, spread 
steadily after the outbreak of hostilities. Manj^ were persuaded by Thomas Paine'a 
pamphlet Common Sense, which appeared iu January, 177G, and of which more than 
100,000 copies were printed. This set forth in a striking manner the reasons for regard- 
ing reconciliation as hopeless, and for declaring independence without delay. 

2 Many of the captives were consigned to the prison ships kept near Brooklyn. 
Their hard lot made the fate of those who perished in battle to be envied. During the 
war, over 11,000 American prisoners died in these loathsome hulks. Their bodies were 
Iniried in the beach, whence, for years after, they were washed out from the sand by 
every tide. In 1808 the remains of these martyrs were interred near the navy yard, 
Brooklyn ; and in 1873 they were finally placed in a vault at Washington Park iu the 
same city. 



134 THE KEVOLUTIOXARV WAR [1776 

Washington'' s lietreat. — Tiie British, crossing to New 
York,' moved to attack AVashington, who had taken post 
on Haelem Heights. Finding the American position too 
strong, Howe moved up the East River in order to gain 
the rear. Washington left a strong garrison in Fort 
Washington on the Hudson, and withdrew the rest of his 
army to White Plains. Here Howe came up and gained 
a small victory. Washington having retired farther north, 
Howe sent the Hessians to take Fort Washington, which 
they captured after a fierce resistance (November 1(1). 

Flight through New Jersey. — Washington had now re- 
tired into" New Jersey in order to protect Philadelphia. 
Cornwallis, with 6000 men, huri-ied after him, and for 
three weeks pursued the flying Americans." At last, 
Washington reached the Delaware, secured all the boats, 
and crossed into Pennsylvania.'' Howe had to wait for 
the river to freeze over, meanwhile quarteiing his troops 
in the neighboring villages. 

Robert Morris.^ — The disastrous retreat into Pennsyl- 
vania was regarded by the British, and by many Ameri- 
cans, as the definite overthrow of the Revolution. Many 

' Captain Nathan Hale bad been sent by Washington as a spy into the British 
camps on Long Ishiutl. Uc passed the lines safely, but on his way back was recog- 
nized and arrested. B»!ing taken to Howe's headquarters, be was tried and executed. 
No clergyman was allowed to visit him ; even a Bible was denied him ; and bis fare- 
well letters to bis mother and sister were destroyed. His last words were, " I regret 
that I have but one life to lose for my country ! " 

2 Many of the patriots bad no shoes, and left their bloodstained footprints on tbc 
frozen ground. Oftentimes the van of the pursuing army was in sight of the Ameri- 
can rearguard. 

^During this retreat Washington repeatedly sent orders to General Charles Lee, 
who was then at North Castle, to join him. Lee hesitated, and at last moved very 
slowly. One day, while quartered in a small tavern remote from his troops, he was 
taken prisoner by the English cavalry. His capture was considered a great disaster 
by many Americans, who thought he was the best officer in tbc army. 

* Robert Morris was a signer of the Declaration of Independence, though be bad op- 
posed its adoption. He was one of the leading nieml>ersof Congress, and worked bard 
as one of the eomnjittce of ways and means. In nsi he bcc.ime Superintendent of 
Finance. To supply the needs of his country, he issued his personal notes to the amount 



1776] 



ROBERT MORRIS 



135 



declared in favor of the enemy. Washington had appar- 
ently lost his campaign ; his hungry, naked, and unpaid 
army was slipping away; 
and the empty-handed 
government was in flight. 
Washington appealed to 
Robert Morris, of Phila- 
delphia, to save his army 
and save the cause; and 
Morris nobly saved them. 
He raised money on his 
own private credit to pay 
the soldiers, to clothe, 
equip, and supply them, 
and thus to keep them 
together. 

The Battle of Trenton.— 
Washington was thus en- 
abled to strike a daring blow. On Christmas night, in a 
storm of sleet, amid drifting ice that threatened every 
moment to crush the boats, he crossed the Delaware witTi 
2400 picked men, fell upon the Hessians at Trenton, cap- 
tured 1000 prisoners, slew their leader,^ and safely escaped 




ROBERT MORRIS. 



of several million dollars, and paid them so promptly that they always stood at par ; 
whereas the government notes depreciated to utter worthlessness. After Washington, 
we owe American independence perhaps most largely to the tiuancial skill and the sacri- 
fices of this remarkable man. Final victory would have been impossible without the 
funds which he supplied. The government, iu its finaucial straits, was slow in repaying 
the money which he advanced. Like Washington, too, he had to bear the malicious 
attacks of personal enemies, to which his high public station exposed him. Some 
years after the war, his business affairs became involved through unfortunate invest- 
ments. He was reduced to poverty and was cast into a debtor's prison, where he 
languished four years. He died (1806) a few years after bis release. 

1 Colonel Rahl attended some Christmas festivities which were kept up all night 
long. A messenger came, at early dawn, with a note warning him of the approach 
of the American forces. But the coloucl thrust it unopened into his pocket. Soon 
after daylight the roll of drums was heard, and the Americans were in pursuit of the 
surprised Hessiaus. 

B. HIST. u. s. — 9 



13G 



THE REVOLUTIONAKY WAR 



[1" 



back to camp, with the lo::s of only four men — two killed 
and two frozen to death. 

Effects. — The fires of patriotism were kindled afresh by 
this brilliant feat. New recruits were received, and the 
troops, whose term of enlistment was expiring, were per- 
suaded to remain a few weeks more. Howe ordered Corn- 
wallis, who was just setting sail for England, to return 
and prepare for a winter's campaign. 



EVENTS OF 1777 

Battle of Princeton (January 3). — Washington soon 
crossed the Delaware again, and took post at Trenton. 
Just before sunset Cornwallis came up. Ilis first onset 

being repulsed, he de- 
cided to wait till morn- 
ing to " catch the fox." 
Washington's situation 
was now most critical. 
Before him was a pow- 
erful army; behind him 
a river full of floating 
ice. That night, leav- 
ing his camp fires burn- 
ing to deceive the enemy, he crept around the British, 
fell upon some troops near Princeton, routed them, took 
over 200 prisoners, and by rapid marches reached in 
safety the hilly region about Mori'istown. Cornwallis 
heard the firing and hurried to the rescue, but he was 
too late. The victory was won, and the victors wera 
beyond pursuit. 

Nearly all of New Jersey was soon regained by the 
patriot forces. The victories of Trenton and Princeton 




WASHINGTON'S HEADQUAKTERS AT MUKKISTOWN 



1777] CAMPAIGN IN PENNSYLVANIA 137 

won for Washington universal praise, and he was declared 
to be the savior of his country. 

Campaign in Pennsylvania. — Howe, having spent the 
next summer at New York, where he was closely watched 
by Washington, finally took the field, and maneuvered to 
force the patriot army to a general fight. Finding the 
"American Fabius" too wary for him, he suddenly 
embarked the larger part of his force and set sail. 
Washington hurried south with his small army to protect 
Philadelphia. 

Battle of Brandy wine (September 11). — Howe's army hav- 
ing landed at the head of Chesapeake Bay, the Americans 
took position at Chads Ford, ou the Brandywine. Here 
they were attacked in front, while Cornwallis stole around 
to the rear. Sullivan, Stirling, Lafayette,^ Wayne, and 
Count Pulaski in vain performed prodigies of valor. The 
patriots were defeated. After further maneuvering, Phil- 
adelphia was taken, and the British army went into quar- 
ters there and at (rermantown. 

Battle of Germantown (October 4). — Washington would 
not let the enemies of his country rest in peace. Making a 
night march, at sunrise he fell upon their troops at Ger- 
mantown. At first the attack was successful, but a few 
British desperately defending a stone house caused delay. 
The cooperation of the different divisions was prevented 

1 Marquis de Lafayette, at a banquet in honor of the brother of the British king in 
1775, heard of the uprising in New England. He was won by the American arguments, 
and from that time joined his hopes and sympathies to the American cause. He was a 
nobleman of high rank, not yet twenty years of age; he had just married a woman 
whom he tenderly loved ; his prospects at home for honor and happiness were bright. 
Yet his zeal for America led him to sacrifice his ease and brilliant prospects at home. 
Be purchased a vessel, fitted it out at his own expense, and, escaping the officers sent to 
detain him, crossed the ocean. Hastening to Philadelphia, he asked permission to serve 
as a volunteer without pay. A few days after, his acquaintance with Washington be- 
gan, and it soon ripened into a tender and intimate friendship. His valor won for 
him a commission as major general before he was twenty-one. 



138 



THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 



[1777 



by a dense fog, which also hid the confusion of the enemy, 
so that the Americans retreated when victory was near.* 




CHEW HOUSE — THE STONE HOUSE DEFENDED BY THE BRITISH AT GEKMANTOWN. 

Campaign in the North. — The main plan of the British 
government for this year was to conquer New York and 
cut off New England from the other colonies. An ex- 
pedition from Canada up Lake Charaplain was to join 
hands at Albany with an expedition from New York up 
the Hudson, and with another smaller one from Lake 
Ontario by way of the Mohawk valley. 

Burgoyne's Invasion. — In June Burgoyne' marched south 
from Canada with an army of British, Germans,- and 
Indians. Forts Crown Point, Ticonderoga, and Edward, 
and the supplies at Whitehall, successively fell into his 
hands. General Schuyler's (ski'lerz) small force could 

J After these battles Howe turned his attention to the forts on the Delaware, which 
prevented his bringing supplies up to Philadelphia. The gallant defenders were soon 
forced by a severe bombardment to evacuate the forts. Washington now retired to Val- 
ley Forge for winter quarters. 



1777] CAMPAIGN IN THE NORTH 139 

only obstruct his path through the wilderness by felling 
trees across the roads and breaking down bridges. The 
loss of so many strongholds caused general alarm. Lin- 
coln, with the Massachusetts troops, Arnold, noted for his 
headlong valor, and Morgan, with his famous riflemefi, 
were sent to help check Burgoyne's advance, and militia- 
men were gathered from the neighboring States.^ 

Burgoyne's Difficulties. — 1. Burgoyne was disappointed 
to hear no news of the expedition from New York. Howe 
knew about the plan, but the final order to him was mis- 
laid in England, so that he never received it. Instead of 
moving up the Hudson, Howe made his expedition against 
Philadelphia, and was greatly delayed by Washington. 
Some British troops left in New York at last started up 
the Hudson, but they were too late. 

2. Colonel St. Leger, with the expedition that was to 
move down the Mohawk valley, got no farther than Fort 
Schuyler,'- which he closely besieged. A small force of 
militia, under Herkimer, promptly advanced to its relief, 
but was ambuscaded by Tories and Indians at Oris'kany. 
There was fought one of the most desperate and mur- 
derous battles of the war (August 6).^ The Americans 
were victorious, but were too much crippled to pursue. 
Next, G-eneral Arnold was sent by General Schuyler to 
relieve the fort. Fearing that he could not reach it in 
time, he had recourse to stratagem. A half-witted Tory 
prisoner was promised his freedom if he would hurry on 

1 The outrages of the Indians along Burgoyne's route — especially the killing and 
scalping of a beautiful young ladj^ named Jane McCrea — led many to join the patriot 
army. Burgoyne tried to restrain the Indians, whereupon they deserted him and 
returned to their homes. 

2 This fort was originally named Fort Stanwix ; it stood on the site of Rome, N. Y. 

3 The same day, the garrison of Fort Schuyler made a sortie and plundered St. 
Leger's camp. Returning, the Americans hoisted the captured British standards, and 
aliove them a crudely made American flag — the tirst flag with stars and stripes ever 
hoisted. This national emblem had been adopted by Congress only a few weeks before. 



140 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR [1777 

and tell St. Leger's troops that a large body of Americans 
was close at hand. The Tory, having cut holes in his 
clothes, ran breathless into the camp of the besiegers, 
showing the bullet-holes and describing his narrow escape 
from the enemy. When asked their number, ho mysteri- 
ously pointed upward to the leaves on the trees. The 
Indians and British were so frightened that they fled 
precipitately, leaving their tents and artillery behind 
them ! 

3. Burgoyne sent a detachment under Colonel Baum to 
seize the supplies the Americans had collected at Ben- 
nington, Vt. There it was met by the militia under Gen- 
eral Stark.' His patriotism and bravery so inspired his 
raw troops that they defeated the German regulars and 
took over 600 prisoners (August 16). 

The Tito Battles ofSarator/a (September 19, October 7). — 
Disappointed in his expectation of supplies and rei^n- 
forcements from all. these directions, Burgoyne moved 
southward and attacked the American array, now under 
General Gates," at Bemis Heights,^ near Sarato'ga. The 
strife did not cease until darkness closed over the battle- 
field. For two weeks afterwards both armies lay in camp, 
fortifying their positions, and each watching for an oppor- 

1 A famous anecdote is told of Geucral Stark at thia battle — that he exclaimed, 
"There are the redcoats; we must heat them to-day, or Molly Stark is a widow." 
Althouprh his wife's name was Elizabeth, " Molly " may ha\ e been her nickname. 

'^ Schuyler's retreat (p. 138) had caused such loss or confidence in him that, by order 
of Congress, ho was superseded by Gates — just as he was ready to reap the result of 
his well laid schemes. With noble-minded patriotism he worked on as zealously as 
ever till Gates arrived, and then generously offered to assist him. 

3 The American fortifications at Bemis Heights were thrown up under the direc- 
ti(m of Kosciusko (kos si us'ko). This general was a Pole of noble blrtli. While In 
France he formed the acquaintance of Franklin, who recommended him to Washington. 
He came to America and offered himself " to fight as a volunteer for Anu'rican inde- 
pendence." Washington was greatly plea.sed with him, and made him his aid. He 
became a colonel in the engineer corps, and superintendeil the construction of the 
works at West Point. After the war, he returned houic aud led the Poles iu their 
struggles for independence. 



1777] CAMPAIGN IN THE NORTH 141 

tuuity to take the other at a disadvantage. Burgoyne's 
provisions were low, and in desperation he moved out to 
attack the Americans again. Arnold, who had been nn- 
justly deprived of his command since the last battle, 
maddened by the sight of the conflict, rushed into the 
thickest of the fight. Gates sent an oflScer to recall him, 
but he was already out of reach. He had no authority to 
fight, much less to direct ; but, dashing to the head of his 
old command, where he was received with cheers, he 
ordered a charge on the British line. Urging on the fight, 
leading every onset, delivering his orders in person where 
the bullets flew thickest, he forced the British' to their 
camp. Here the Hessians, dismayed by these terrific 
attacks, fired one volley and fled. Arnold, having forced 
an entrance, was wounded in the same leg as at Quebec 
(p. 129), and was borne from the field, but not until he 
had won a victory while Gates stayed idle in his tent. 

Effects of these Battles. — Burgoyne now fell back to 
Saratoga. Hemmed in on all sides, he saw no hope of 
escape. Provisions were nearly exhausted and water was 
scarce, as onlj^ the women dared go to the river for it. 
The American batteries commanded the British camp.^ 

' General Fraser was the mind and soul of theBritiHli army. General Morgan soon 
saw that this brave man alone stood between the Americans and victory. Calling 
some of his l)est men, lie said, "That gallant officer is General Fraser. I admire and 
honor him ; ))ut he must die. Stand among those bushes and do your duty." In Ave 
minutes Fraser fell, mortally wounded. 

- While a council of war, held in Burgoyne's tent, was considering the question of 
surrender, an eighteen-pound cannon ball passed over the table around which the 
otticers sat. Under such circumstances the decision was quickly made. 

Burgoyne was not the only British general who came to grief this year. General 
Prescott, the British commander in Rhode Island, had become very negligent in the 
fancied security afforded by the British ships and the superior British force around 
him. Dexterously avoiding the enemy's vessels. Colonel Barton and about forty 
militia rowed ten miles in whaleboats, landed near Prescott's quarters, seized the as- 
tonished sentinel who guarded his door, and hurried off the half-dressed general. 
An exchange of prisoners being proposed. General Howe parted with Charles Lee 
(p. 134) in exchange for Prescott. 



142 



THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 



[1777 



After some negotiating, Burgojme's entire army, nearly 
6000 strong, laid down their arms. General Bnrgoyno 
surrendered his sword to General Gates, who promptly 
returned it. 

A §hout of joy went up all over the land at the news of 
this victory. From the despair caused by the defeats of 




BCRGOYNE'S SURRENDER. 

Brandywine and Germantown, the nation now rose to the 
highest pitch of confidence. In a few months Great 
Britain sent commissioners with liberal proposals, which, 
before the war began, would have been accepted; but 
that day was past.' 

• Next, bribery was tried. Aiiionff tliose .approached was General Reed of Penn- 
sylvania, lie was offered 10,000 frnineas and liitrh honors if he would exert his influ- 
ence to effect a reconciliation. " I am not worth i>ur<'hasiu,ir," said tlie honest patriot, 
"but such as I am, the king of Great Britain is not rich enough to buy me." 



1778] WINTER IN VALLEY FORGE 143 

EVENTS OF 1778 

Winter in Valley Forge (1777-78). — The winter passed 
by Washiugtou's army in Valle^^ Forge was the gloomiest 
period of the war. Besides borrowing what it could, the 
Congress had been obliged to issue much " Continental " 
paper money, and this was now so depreciated in value 
that an officer's pay would not keep him in clothes. 
Many, having spent their fortunes in the war, were com- 
pelled to resign in order to get a living. The men were 
encamped in cold, comfortless huts, with little food or 
clothing. Barefooted, they left on the frozen ground 
their tracks in blood. Few had blankets, and straw could 
not be obtained. Soldiers who were enfeebled by hunger 
and benumbed by cold slept on the bare earth. Sickness 
followed. With no change of clothing, no suitable food, 
and no medicines, death was the only relief. 

Amid this terrible suffering the fires of patriotism burned 
brightly. Washington felt that his cause was just, and 
inspired all around him with his sublime faith.' The sol- 
diers were well drilled by Baron von Steuben, a veteran 
from the famous army of Frederick the Great of Prussia. 
The thorough discipline and European tactics which 
Steuben introduced among the ragged patriots made 
them thereafter more reliable and efficient in military 
operations. 

Aid from France. — In the spring came the good news 

' Besides all the perils of want and famine which he shared with his soldiers, Wash- 
ington was called upon to suffer from euvy and calumny. General Conway, a cunning, 
restless intriguer, formed a cabal of officers against Washington. Their plan was to 
wound his feelings so that he would resign. In that event. Gates, whose reputation 
was very high, would succeed to the command. Pennsylvania sent to Congress a 
remonstrance censuring Washington. The same was done by members from Massa- 
chusetts. Fortunately, the army and the best citizens knew the inspiration of the 
movement to be jealousj% and the attack recoiled on the heads of its instigators. 



144 TIIK KEVOLUTIUNAKY WAK [1778 

that, through the efforts of Franklin,' France had acknowl- 
edged the independence of the United States, and that a 
fleet was on its waj^ to help them in their strug-ole. In 
this action France was influenced by her old hatred of 
England, and by the great victory which the Americans 
had won over Burgoyne. 

Battle of Monmouth (June 28). — The British government, 
alarmed by the sending of the French fleet, ordei-ed Clin- 
ton, the successor of General Howe, to evacuate Phila- 
delphia and concentrate his forces at New York. Wash- 
ington rapidly followed the British across New Jersey, 
and overtook them at Monmouth. General Lee,^ who 
conducted the attack, ordered a retreat. The men, en- 

• Benjamin Franklin was bom in Boston, 1706; died iu PLiladelphia, 1790. His 
fatljer was a soap and candle maker, with small mciiua, and Kenjauiiii, l)eiiig the 
youngest boy among seventeen children, had little opportunity to gratify his desire 
for knowledge. By abstaining from meat he managed to buy a few books, which he 
diligently studied. At seventeen years of age he landed in Philadelphia with a silver 
dollar and a shilling in copper. As ht; walked along the streets, eating the roll of bread 
which served for his breakfast, his future wife stood at her father's door and smiled at 
his awkward appearance, lit tic dreaming of his brilliant future or of its intci'cst to her. 
He soon obtained employment as a printer. After a time he established a newspaper, 
and in IT.VI began tf) publish I'oor liichard's Almanuc, which for twenty years was 
quite as jiopular in Europe as in America. Its common-sense proverbs and useful hints 
are household woi'ds to this day. Ketiring from business with a line fortune, he devoted 
himself chiefly to science. His discoveries in electricity are world renowned. Frank- 
lin was an imfiinching patriot and an able statesman. His Plan of Union (p. 93) antici- 
l>ated some of the features of our present government. While acting as agent for 
Pennsylvania in Kngland (Xl'tl and later) he defended the cause of liberty with great 
zeal and ability. He helped to draft the Declaration of Independence, and was one 
of its signers. Having been appointed ambassador to France, he first invested all his 
ready money, $15,000, in the Oout incut al loan — a practical proof of his patriotism, since 
its repayment was extremely improbable. His influence at the French coiu-t was 
unbounded. He was revered for his wit, his genius, his dignity, and liis channing con- 
versation. On his return he was elected president of Pennsylvania for three suc- 
cessive years. He gave the whole of his salary, $30,000, to benevolent objects. In 
his eighty-second year he was a member of the Constitutional Convention. At his 
death 20,000 persons assembled to do honor to his memory. 

-Charles liCe, for his conduct at Monmouth and for disrespectful letters to Washing- 
ton and to Congress, was suspended and later, dismissed from the army. It is now 
believed that he was a traitor to the patriot cause. During his captivity he had sup- 
plied Howe with a plan for the capture of Philadelphia — a fact not known for many 
years after this. His tnuduct at Monmouth was no doubt treasonable. 



140 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR [1778 

tangled in a swamp, were becoming demoralized as they 
retired from the field, when Washington, riding up, bitterly 
rebuked Lee, rallied the men, and sent them back against 
the enemy. The fight lasted all that long, sultry day.' 
In the night Clinton stole away with his men to New York. 

Campaign in Rhode Island. — A combined attack on 
Newport was arranged to be made by the French fleet 
under L'Estaing (des tax') and the American army under 
General Sullivan. Soon after the French entered Narra- 
gansett Bay, the British fleet arrived off the harbor. 
D'Estaing went out to meet it. A storm came on, which 
so sliattercd both fleets that they w(M'e compelled to put 
back for repairs. The French then withdrew, and General 
Sullivan, being thus deserted, retreated just in time to 
escape Clinton, who came from New York with reenforce- 
ments. 

The Wyoming Massacre. — in July a band of Tories and 
Indians, under Butler, entered the beautiful Wyoming 
valley, on the Susquehanna." Most of the able-bodied 
men had gone to the war. The women and children fled 
to a fort for refuge. A handful of old men and boys 
sallied out to meet the invaders, but were quickly de- 
feated. All that night the Indians tortured their prison- 

1 During the daj- an artilU'rynian namod Hays was shot at his post. His wife, Mary, 
while bringing water to her husband from a spring, saw him fall. Instantly dropping 
her piteher, she ha.stened to the cannon, seized the rammer, and with great skill and 
courage performed her husband's duty. The soldiers gave her the uitkname of Molly 
Pitcher. Congress voted her a sergeant's commission warrant with half-jtay througli 
Ufe. 

-The lands granted by the charters of Connecticut and Pennsylvania overlapped; 
hence for a long time the northern part of Penn.sylvania was in dispute between these 
two colonies. The Wyoming valley was settled by Connecticut men, under the mau- 
ageraent of a Connecticut company, only a few years before the outbreak of tlie Revo- 
lution. The armed eflForts of the Pennsylvania authorities to dispossess these settlers 
amounted almost to civil war, when the Revolution turned the attention of all in 
another direction. The dispute Was Anally settled by Congress in favor of Pennsyl- 
vania. 



1779] CAMPAIGN IN THE SOUTH 147 

ers in every way that savage cruelty could devise. The 
next day the fort was surrendered on promise of safety, 
but Butler could not restrain his savage allies. By night 
the whole valley was ablaze with burning dwellings, while 
the people fled for their lives through the wilderness. 

COLLATERAL READING 
Effects of Saratoga.— Fiske's American Revoli(tioii, vol. ii. pp. 1-11. 

EVENTS OF 1779 

Campaign in the South. — At the close of the autumn of 
1778 the British transferred the war to Georgia, and the 
South became henceforth the principal seat of conflict. 
Savannah and Augusta were captured (p. 152), and soon 
the entire State was apparently conquered. The British 
governor being restored, Great Britain could once more 
boast of a royal province among the colonies. The British 
general, Prevost (preh vo'), next marched against Charles- 
ton and summoned the city to surrender ; but was driven 
off by Lincoln. 

French- American Attack on Savannah. — In September a 
French force under D'Estaing joined Lincoln in besieging 
Savannah. After a severe bombardment, kn unsuccessful 
assault was made, in which many lives were lost. Count 
Pulaski^ was mortally wounded. The simple-hearted 
Sergeant Jasper died grasping the banner presented to 
his regiment at Fort Moultrie (p. 130). 

Campaign in the North. — Clinton at New York did little 
except to send out predatory parties. Norwalk, Fairfield, 
and New Haven, Conn., were either burned or plundered. 

1 Count Pulaski was a Polish patriot who, having lost bis father and brothers in the 
hopeless defense of his country, and being himself outlawed, came to flght for the 
freedom of America. He commanded a famous independent corps called "Pulaski's 
Legion." He was buried in the Savannah River. 



148 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR [1779 

Tryon, who commauded the Connecticut expedition/ 
boasted of liis clemency in leaving a single house standing 
on the New England coast. 

TJtc Capture of Stony Point (July IG), a British outpost on 
the Hudson, by General Wayne, was one of the most bril- 
liant exploits of the war. Stealing up in the darkness to 
tlie base of the hill on which the fort was situated, Wayne's 
men began the ascent, with unloaded muskets and fixed 
bayonets. They had nearly reached the sentinel before 
they were discovered. Fire was at once opened upon them. 
Wayne was wounded, but commauded his aids to carry 
him along with them at the head of the column. The 
rush of his men was irresistible. An instant more, and 
a deafening shout told that the fort was won. The 
British lost in killed, wounded, and prisoners several 
hundred men. 

General SidUua)i''s Expedition. — The atrocities of the In- 
dians had kept the inhabitants of the upper Susquehanna 
and Mohawk valleys in continued terror. In the summer, 
General Sullivan led an expedition into the Iroquois coun- 
try. At Newtown, now Ehnira, N. Y., he defeated the In- 
dians and their Tory allies in a fierce battle, and then 
marched to and fro through the beautiful region east of 
the Genesee, laying waste the Indians' cornfields, feUing 
their orchards, and burning their houses. 

Clark's Conquest of the West.— In 1778 George Rogers 
Clark had succeeded, with only 200 men, in overawing the 
Indians and capturing the few British posts in a vast 
region in the wild west, north of the Ohio ; but the British 

1 Gonoral Putnam was at Horse Xeclc, Connocticiit, when Tryon was in tbe vicinity. 
Hastily fiatlicrine: a few militia, he annoyed the British as Ions as possible, and then, 
coinpolled to flee l.eforc the enemy's overwhelniinsr force, his men hid tbeiuselves in 
the ad.iaeenr swamp, while he, spurring his spirited horse over a precipice, descended 
a zigzag path where the British dragoons did not dare to follow. 



1779] 



NAVAL EXPLOITS 



149 



SCALE OF MILES 




CLARK'S CONQUEST OF THE NOKTUWEST. 



recaptured Vinceniies. In a vigorous campaign in 1779, 
Clark again took Vincennes, and established the author- 
ity of Virginia 
throughout this 
country , as far 
west as the Mis- 
sissippi River. 

Naval Exploits. 
— At the begin- 
ning of the war 
the colonists fit- 
ted out j)rivateers 
to cruise along 
the Xew England 
coast; and Congress ordered the building of a few war 
ships. Swift sailing vessels, manned bj" bold seamen, 
soon infested every avenue of commerce. Within three 
years they captured hundreds , of British ships. They 
even cruised around the British Isles, and, entering har- 
bors, seized and burned ships Ijdng at English wharfs. 

Paul Jones is the most famous of these naval heroes. 
While cruising with a small squadron off the northeast 
coast of England, he met the Serapis and the Countess of 
Scarhorougli convoying a fleet of merchantmen. In the 
evening of September 23, 1779, he laid his own vessel, 
the BonJiomme Eichard,^ alongside the Serapis^ and a 
desperate struggle ensued. In the midst of the engage- 
ment he lashed the ships together.'^ The crews then 



1 Joues had given this name (Goodman Richard) to bis ship in honor of Dr. Frank- 
lin, whose sayings as " Poor Richard" he warmly admired. 

•-' The ships had twice fallen foul of each otlier. The first time, the Serapis hailed 
the Richard, asking if she had " struck her colors." " I have not yet begun to fight," 
was the reply of Jones. The PaUas, one of Jones's squadron, captured the Countess 
of Scarborough, but his other ships gave no aid. 



150 THE REVOLUTIOx\AKY W'AK [1780 

fought hand to hand. The Richard was old and rotten. 
Water poured into the hold. Three times both vessels 
were on fire. About ten o'clock the Senipis surrendered. 
Jones transferred his crew from the fast-sinking vessel to 
the captured frigate, and sailed for Holland. 




CAPTURE OF THE SEKAPI8. 



EVENTS OF 1780 



Campaign in the South. — Georgia having been subdued, 
the British under Clinton carried the war into South 
Carolina. Charleston was attacked by land and sea. 
General Lincoln, after enduring a siege of forty days and 
a terrible bombardment, was forced to surrender. Maraud- 
ing expeditions ' soon overran the whole State. Clinton 
returned to New York, leaving Cornwallis in command. 

1 One of these, under the command of the brutal Tarleton, at Waxhaw Creek 
(p. 152), engaged a body of Continental troops. The Britiwh trave uo quarter, and after 
the Americans surrendered, mercilessly maimed and butchered the larj^er portion of 
ihem. " Tarleton's quarter " became, henceforth, a proverb in the South. 



1780] CAMPAIGN IN THE SOUTH 151 

Battle of Camden (August 16). — Greneral Gates, " the con- 
queror of Burgoyne," taking command of new troops in 
the South, marched to meet Cornwalhs near Camden. 
Singularly, both generals had appointed the same time to 
make a night attack ; so the advance guards of the two 
armies unexpectedly met in the woods. After some sharp 
skirmishing they waited for day. At dawn Cornwallis 
ordered a charge. The American militia, demoralized by 
the fighting in the night, fled at the first fire ; but De Kalb, 
with the Continental regulars, stood firm. At last he fell, 
pierced with eleven wounds. His brave comrades for a 
time fought desperately over his body, but were over- 
whelmed by numbers. The army was so scattered that it 
could not be collected. A few of the officers met Gates 
eighty miles in the rear with no soldiers. 

Partisan Corps. — The Carolinas contained many Tories, 
who helped to restore British rule. Many joined the 
British army; others organized companies that robbed 
and murdered their Whig neighbors. . On the other hand, 
there were patriot bands which made their headquarters 
in swamps, and sallied out as occasion offered. These 
partisan corps kept the country in continual terror. 
Marion,' Sumter,'^ Pickens, and Henry Lee were noted 
patriot leaders. Their bands were strong enough to cut 
off British detachments, and even to capture small garri- 

' A British offlcer, sent to negotiate concerning an exchange of prisoners, dined with 
Marion. The dinner consisted of roasted potatoes, served on pieces of bark. Surprised 
at this meager diet, he made some inquiries. He found that this -was the patriots' 
customary fare ; that the patriot general received no pay ; and that this " Bayard of 
the South," as Marion was called, had then neither blanket nor hat. This devotion to 
liberty so affected the officer that he resigned his commission. 

-' At Hanging Rock (August 6) Sumter gained a victory over a strong body of British 
and Tories. He began the action with only two rounds of ammunition, but soon sup- 
plied himself from the fleeing Tories. Frequently, in these contests, a portion of the 
bands woiild go into a battle without guns, arming themselves with the muskets of 
their comrades as they fell. 



[1780 



CAMPAIGN IN THE SOUTH 



153 



sons. The cruel treatment which the Whigs received 
from the British drove many to this partisan warfare. 
The issue of the contest in the South was mainly decided 
by these bold citizen soldiers. 

Kings Mountain (October 7). — At Kings Mountain, on the 
border of North and South Carolina, a large body of in- 




BATTLE OF KINGS MOUNTAIN. 



lS^fe^>>9?C/ 



dependent riflemen, mainly from 
the frontier settlements on the 
upper Tennessee River, attacked 
Ferguson, who had been sent out to rally 
( the Tories of the neighborhood. Ferguson and 

about one third of his men were killed or severely 
wounded, and the remainder were taken prisoners. 

Continental Paper Money had now been issued by Con- 
gress to the amount of $200,000,000. At this time it was 
of so little value that $40 in bills was worth only $1 in 
specie. A pair of boots cost $600 in Continental cur- 

B, HIST. U. S. — 10 



li-;4 THK KEVOLUTIONARY WAR [1780 

reiicy. A soldier's pay for a month would hardly buy one 
meal for his family. To make the matter worse, the Brit- 
ish flooded the country with counterfeits which could not 
be told from the genuine. Many persons refused to take 
Continental money. The difhculty of procuring supplies 
and the sufferings of the soldiers may readily be imagined.* 
The Pennsylvania regiments in camp at Morristown, 
claiming that their time had expired, demanded their dis- 
charge. At last, 1300 strong, they set out (January 1, 1781) 
for Philadelphia, to secure redress at the point of the bay- 
onet; but they halted at Princeton, and a committee of 
the Congress succeeded in satisfying and disbanding them. 
Arnold's Treason. — The Bi'itish did little in the North, 
and the condition of Washington's army prevented his 
making any movement. Meanwhile, the cause of liberty 
suffered a terrible blow from one who had been its gallant 
defender. General Arnold, whose bravery at Quebec and 
Saratoga had awakened universal admiration, was sta- 
tioned at Philadelphia while his wound was healing. He 
there married a Tory lady, and lived in great extrava- 
gance. In the exercise of his command, he made some 
enemies among the Whigs. Charges being preferred 
against him, he was convicted and sentenced to be rep- 
rimanded by the commander in chief. AVashington per- 
formed the duty very gently; but Arnold resolved to 
gratify both his revenge and his love of money by betray- 
ing his country. Accordingly, he secured from Washing- 
ton the command of West Point, at that time the most 
important post in America. He then proposed to Chnton 
to surrender it to the British. The offer was accepted, 
and iNIajor Andre (an'dra) was appointed to confer with 

' In this crisis Robert Morris sent 3,000,000 rations. Soldiers' relief associations, 
organized by the wouieu of Pbiladelphia, made and sent clothing to the patriot army. 



1780] 



ARNOLD'S TREASON 



155 



him. Andre ascended the Hudson on the British ship 
Vulture, and went ashore by night to meet the traitor 
(September 21). Morning dawned before they had com- 
pleted their plans. Meantime, the Vulture was fired on, 
and dropped down the river. Andre, now left within the 
American lines, started for New York by land. He had 
reached Tarrytown in safety, when, at a sudden turn in the 




TRIAL OF ANDRE. 

road, his horse's reins were seized, and three men' sprang 
before him. They searched him, and, finding susjiicious 
papers, carried him to the nearest American post. Arnold 

1 The names of these men were Pauldlnc:, Van Wart, and Williams. Andre oflfercd 
them his horse, ■watch, purse, and any su::i they might name, if they would release 
him. The patriots declared that they would not let him go for ten thousand guineas. 
Congress voted to e.ieh of them a silv"cr medal and a pension for life. 



15G THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR [1781 

was notified in time to make his escape ; ' but West Point 
was saved to the Americans. Andre was tried and hanged 
as a spy. The British made every effort to save him, and 
his fate awakened universal sympathy. 



EVENTS OF 1 781 

Campaign in the South. — General Greene, who was ap- 
pointed to succeed General Gates, found the American 
army in the South to consist of only 2000 half-clothed, 
half-starved men. A part of his force, under Morgan, 
was attacked (January 17) at Cowpens- by Tarleton. In 
the midst of the fight the Americans fell back to a better 
position. The British mistook this for a retreat, and were 
rushing on in confusion, when the Americans faced about, 
poured in a deadly fire at close quarters, captured half 
Tarleton's foj'ce, and drove the rest in utter rout. Tarle- 
ton fled to Cornwallis, who set out in hot haste, eager to 
punish the victors and recapture the prisoners. Morgan 
started for Virginia, and crossed the Catawba just before 
Cornwallis appeared in sight. Night came on, and with it 
rain, which raised the river so high as to keep the impa- 
tient Cornwallis waiting three days. 

Greeners Retreat. — General Greene now joined Morgan, 

1 He received, as the reward of hiatreachery, £6315, a colonelcy in the British army, 
and the contempt of everybody. He was thoroughly dospiaed by the British officers, 
and often insulted. A menilter of Parliament, about to address the House of Commons, 
happening, as ho rose, to see Arnold in the gallery, said, pointing to the traitor, 
" Mr. Speaker, 1 will not speak while that man is in the house." When Tallej-rand was 
about to come to America, he sought letters of introduction from Arnold, but received 
the reply, "I was born in America; I lived there to the prime of my life; but alas! I 
'can call no man in America my friend." 

- Colonel William A. Washington, in a personal combat in this battle, wounded 
Tarleton. Months afterward, the British oflicer, while conversing with Mrs. Jones, a 
witty American lady, sneeriiigly said, "That Colonel Washington is very illiterate; 
I am told that he can not write his name." "Ah, Colonel," replied she, "you bear 
evidence that he can make his mark." 



1781] CAMPAIGN IN THE SOUTH 157 

and conducted the retreat. At the Yadkin, just as the 
Americans had reached the other side, it began to rain. 
When Cornwallis came up, the river was so swollen that 
he could not cross. However, he marched up the stream, 
effected a passage, and was soon in full pursuit again. 
Now came a race, on parallel roads, thirty miles a day, 
for the fords of the Dan. Greene reached them first, and 
Cornwallis gave up the chase.' 

Campaign Closed. — Having rested his men, Greene again 
took the field, and at Guilford Court House (March 15) 
he hazarded a battle. His forces were skillfully drawn up 
in three lines, which the British charged in succession. 
The Americans at last retired, but the British had bought 
their victory so dearly that Cornwallis also retreated. 
Greene again pursuing, Cornwallis shut himself up in 
Wilmington. Thereupon, Greene turned into South Caro- 
lina, and, with the aid of Marion, Sumter, Lee, and Pickens, 
nearly delivered this State and Georgia from British 
rule.^ In the battle of Eutaw Springs (September 8) the 
British were so crippled that they retired toward Charles- 
ton. Cornwallis, declining to follow Greene into South 
Carolina, had already gone north into Virginia, and 
though a fierce partisan warfare still distracted the coun- 
try, this engagement closed the long contest in the South. 

1 During this retreat, General Greene, after a hard day's ride in the rain, alighted 
at the door of Mrs. Elizabeth Steele, in Salisbury, N. C, announcing himself as 
"fatigued, hungry, cold, and penniless." Quickly providing the honored guest with 
a warm supper before a cheerful tire, this patriotic woman brought forth two small 
bags of specie, her earnings for years. "Take these," she said ; " you will want them, 
and I can do without them." "Never," says his biographer, "did relief come at a 
more needy moment; the hero resumed his dangerous journey that night witli a 
lightened heart." 

'■' Congress voted the highest honors to General Greene, who, by his prudence, 
wisdom, and valor, h.ad, with such insignificant forces and miserable equipments, 
achieved so much for the cause of liberty. He never gained a decided victory, yet 
his defeats had all the efTect of successes, and his very retreats strengthened the 
confidence of his men and weakened that of the enemy. 



158 THE KEVULUTIUXARY WAR [17S1 

Campaign in Virginia. — The traitor Arnold, now zealous 
in the British cause, led an expedition into Virginia. He 
conducted the war with great brutality, burning private 
as well as public property. Lafayette was sent to check 
him, but with his small force could accomplish little. 
Cornwallis, arriving from the south, now took Arnold's 
place, and continued this marauding tour. Clinton, how- 
ever, fearing Washington, who seemed to threaten New 
York, directed Cornwallis to keep near th6 seacoast so as 
to be ready to help him. Accordingly, Cornwallis, after 
having destroyed ten million dollars' worth of property, 
fortified himself at Yorktown. 

Siege of Yorktown. — It was arranged to attack Corn- 
wallis at this plcxce ' by the combined American and 
French foi'ces. Washington, by a feint on New York, 
kept Clinton in the dark regarding his plans until he was 
far on his way south with his swift-iuarching army." Late 
in September the joint forces, 16,000 strong,'* took 
up their position before Yorktown. Batteries were 
opened ^ upon the city, and the British vessels in the 
harbor were fired by red-hot shot. Two redoubts were 
carried, one by the Americans, the other by the French. 

' In fiiiallj- deterTiiininK upon this Yorktown cauipaifjcn, Waf>liiiii,'ton was influenced 
by lioltert Morris, wlio obstinately I'efuscd to advance a dollar for any otber enterprise, 
and wbo issued $1,400,000 of bis notes to secure tbe capture of Cornwallis. 

- Clinton sent Arnold on a pillaging tour into Connecticut in order to force Wasli- 
Ington to return. He, however, was not to be diverted from his great enterprise, and 
left New ICngland to take care of herself. New Loudon was pillaged and burned, 
Arnold watching the fire from a church steeple. At Fort Griswold the comiuander 
and half the garrison were butchered. 

^Tliere were present about S'lOO Continentals, 7000 French, and, in addition, about 
S.'iOO Virginia militia under Governor Nelson. A French fleet prevented Cornwallis 
from escaping l)y sea. The most hearty good will prevailed among the besiegers. 
The patriots slept in the open air, that their allies might use their tents. 

* Governor Nelson commanded tlie battery that fired first upon the British. Corn- 
wallis occupied the governor's fine stone mansion. The patriot pointed one of hia 
heaviest guns toward bis liouse, and ordered the gunner to fire upon it with vigor 
The British could not iuak(! even the home of the uoljlo Nelson a shield against him. 



1781] 



SUERENDER OF CORNWALLIS 



150 



Cornwallis could see no hope of escape, and capitulated 
(October 19).^ 

The Effect. — Both parties felt that this surrender virtu- 
ally ended the war. Joy pervaded every patriot heart.^ 




"PAST TWO O'CLOCK, AND COUNWALLIS IS TAKEN." 

1 The scene of the surreuder was imposing. The army was drawn up in two lines, 
extending over a mile— the Americans on one side with General Washington at the 
head, and the French on the other with Count Rochambeau (ro ehuN 1)0'). The captive 
army, about 7000 men, marched slowly out between them. A prodigious crowd, 
anxious to see Cornwallis, had assembled; but the haughty general feigned illness, 
and sent his sword by a subordinate. Washington directed the sword to be delivered 
to General Lincoln, who, eighteen months before, had surrendered at Charleston. 

2 The news reached Philadelphia at the dead of night. The people were awakened 
by the watchman's cry, " Past two o'clock, and ComwaUis is taken." Lights flashed 



160 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR [1781 

All the hardships of the past were forgotten in the 
thought that America Avas free. 

All hope of subduing America was now abandoned by 
the people of England, and they loudly demanded the 
removal of the ministers who still counseled war. The 
House of Commons voted that whoever advised the king to 
continue hostilities should be considered a public enemy. 

RESULTS OF THE WAR 

Difficulties of the Country and Army. — The, situation of 
the United States at this time was perilous. Commerce 
had been destroyed by the war. The currency was worth- 
less paper monej^ War had been the main business of 
the country for years, and all trade, manufactures, and 
agriculture had been neglected. Villages had been bui-ned, 
ships destroyed, and crops laid waste. The British held 
Cliarleston and Savannah about a year, New York about 
two years, and forts in the Northwest several years, after 
the surrender at Yorktown. George III. was obstinate, 
and war might be resumed. Yet the Ameiican army was 
in almost open rebellion. The soldiers, afraid tliey should 
be disbanded and sent home without pay, petitioned Con- 
gress, but received no satisfaction. The treasury was 
empty. At this crisis, certain persons asked Washington 
to become king. The noble patriot spurned the proposal 
indignantly. A paper having been circulated advising 
violent measures, Washington addressed the officers, and 
besought them not to mar their fair record of patriotic 
service by any rash proceedings. His influence prevailed, 

through the houses, and soon the streets were thronged with crowds eager to learn 
the glad news. Some were speechless with delight. Many wept, and the old door- 
keeper of Congress died of joy. Congress met at an early hour, and that afternoon 
marched in solemn procession to church to return thanks to Almighty God. 



1783] PEACE 161 

both with the army aiid with Congress, and the difficulty 
was amicably settled.* 

Peace. — A treaty was signed at Paris (September 3, 
1783) acknowledging the independence of the United 
States. Soon afterwards the army was disbanded. Wash- 
ington bade his officers an affecting farewell, and retired 
to Mount Vernon, followed by the thanksgiving of a grate- 
ful people. 

The United States at first extended west only to the 
Mississippi, and south only to Florida. Spain, being allied 
with France, had been engaged in the war, and as a result 
regained Florida, which she had lost to the British twenty 
years before (p. 99). Hence our country was bounded 
west and south by Spanish territory, and north, as now, 
by British. 

The Western Lands. — One result of the Revolution was 
to throw open for settlement the lands west of the Appa- 
lachian Mountains. The restriction of the British gov- 
ei'nment in favor of the Indians (p. 100) being removed, 
settlers poured into what are now Kentucky and Tennes- 
see, and a little later into the lands northwest of the Ohio 
River. The lands between the Appalachian Mountains 
and the Mississippi River were claimed, under "sea to 
sea" charters, by the six States of Massachusetts, Con- 
necticut, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and 
Georgia. New York also claimed a large area, under 
treaties with the Indians, and Virginia had strengthened 
her claim by actual conquest (p. 149). Certain regions 
were claimed by two or three different States. But the 
States which had no Western claims urged that this 



1 The country was again indebted for the settlement of this difficulty to Robert 
Morris, Superintendent of Finance, who secured money to pay the army by the issue of 
his own personal notes. 




l62 



1787] WEAKNESS OF THE GOVERNMENT 163 

land had been wrested from Great Britain through the 
joint efforts of all; and finally, to prevent further dis- 
pute, the seven land-claiming States at different times 
ceded their claims, or most of them, to Congress/ 

For the government of the Territory Northwest of the 
Ohio River,- Congress passed the famous Ordinance of 
1787. Besides providing for the territorial offices, etc., 
this ordinance forbade slavery in the Territory, and said 
that the land should in time be divided into three or five 
States. 

Weakness of the Federal Government. — During the war, 
the thirteen States had agreed upon the Articles of Con- 
federation, but this plan of government conferred little 
power on Congress. It could recommend, but not en- 
force; it could only advise action, leaving the States to 
do practically as they pleased. There were no United 
States courts, and no President. Bitter jealousy existed 
among the several States, both with regard to one another 
and with regard to a general government. The popular 
desire was to let each State remain independent, and have 
no strong national authority. But as each State made its 
own laws about commerce, and even levied duties on 
goods brought from other States, the trade of the country 
was greatly crippled. A heavy debt had been incurred 



' New York was the first to present her western territory to the general government 
(1781). Virginia followed her example in 1784, donating the gi-eat Northwest Territory 
— a princely domain, which, if retained, would have made her the richest of the States ; 
she reserved only 3,709,848 acres in Ohio, which she subsequentlj' sold in small tracts to 
settlers. Massachusetts relinquished her claim in 178.5, retaining a proprietary right 
over large tracts in New York. Connecticut in 1786 did similarly, and from the sale 
of her lands in Ohio (the " Western Reserve ") laid the foundation of her school fund. 
North Carolina (1789), South Carolina (1787), and Georgia (1802) gave up their claims to 
territory from which have been carved the State of Tennessee and the northern part 
of Mississippi and Alabama. 

"i This territory embraced the present States of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, 
Wisconsin, and part of Minnesota. 



1G4 CONSTITUTION ADOPTED [1787 

by the war. Congress had no money, and could not levy 
taxes. It asked the States to pay, but they were too jeal- 
ous of Congress to heed its requests. "We are," said 
Washington, " one nation to-day, and thirteen to-morrow." 
In Massachusetts large bodies of men assembled, refusing 
to pay their taxes and threatening to overturn the govern- 
ment. This insurrection, known as Shays's Rebellion, 
from the name of its leader, was put down by State 
militia under General Lincoln (1787). 

Constitution Adopted. — In these circumstances many 
of the best men of the land felt the need of a stronger na- 
tional government. A Convention was called in Philadel- 
phia to revise the Articles of Confederation. Washington 
was chosen its president. After much deliberation,' an 
entirely new Constitution was adopted by the convention 
(September 17, 1787), to go into effect when it should be 
ratified by nine States.'- Within a year it was ratified by 

' Many of tlie provisious of tbo Constitution were the result of compromises. For 
instance, the delegates from lar.ire States insisted that the number of representatives 
sent bj- each State to Congress should depend on population, while the delegates from 
small States said that the number should l)e the same for all the States. This question 
was settled by a compromise providing that the States should have equal representa- 
tion in the Senate, but representation according to population in the House of Repre- 
sentatives. By another compromise it was provided that in determining the popula- 
tion five slaves should count the same as three tree persons. Some of the Southern 
States wished to import more slaves, for use on their plantations and also to increase 
their representation in Congress; and by another compromise it was provided that 
the slave trade should not be forbidden by Congress before the year 1808. 

2 The new Constitution met with the most violent opposition. The people were 
divided into two iiarties — the I'ldcralisls- and the Anli-I'idvraUnts. The Federalists fa- 
vored the Constitution and sought to increase the powers of the national government 
and thus strengthen tiu'^ Union at home and abroad. The Anti-Federalists opposed the 
Constitution, were jealous of Congress, and feared too uuich national power, lest a mon- 
archy .should lie established. The nation was agitated by the most earnest and thought- 
ful as well as the most virulent speeches on both sides. The question of ratitication 
was decided in each State by a convention of delegates chosen by the people; and in 
several of these eonventirms the vote was very close. North Carolina and Rhode Island 
deferred action on the matter; the former ratified the Constitution in November, 1789, 
and Rhode Island in 1790. Early in 1789 pret-idential elections were held, in each of the 
eleven Stales that had then adopted tie Constitution, except New York, where the 
legislature hiul made no ]ir()vision for the election. The ten States chose sixty-uiuc 



1789] 



PLAN OP GOVERNMENT 



165 



eleven States, and in ]789 the new government went into 
operation. 

During: the next epoch we shall notice the growth of 
the country under the wise provisions of this Constitution. 




ItOOM I.N INUEPENUKNCE HALL WHKKE THE CONSTITUTION WAS FRAMED. 

Let us now consider the character of the national govern- 
ment which it provided for, and the division of powers 
between the nation and the States. 

Plan of Government. — The government of the United 
States is divided into three branches. (1) The lawmaking 
branch consists of Congress.^ (2) The law-enforcing branch 

presideiitial electors. Under the Ooustitution as originally adopted, each elector voted 
for two persons. The candidate who received the highest number of votes (if the 
clioice of a majority of the electors) was declared President, and the next highest 
Vice President. In this first election Washington received the highest number (69), 
and John Adams the next highest (34). 

1 The Congress is composed of two houses or bodies of men, called the Senate and 
the House of Kepreseutatives, both of which must vote in favor of a proposed law, or 



166 CONSTITUTION ADOPTED [1789 

consists of the President and many officials under him. 
(3) The law-expkiining branch consists of the Supreme 
Court and various lower courts established by Congress. 
The congressmen and the President are elected directly 
or indirectly by the people, but the judges of the United 
States courts are appointed for life by the President, with 
the consent of the Senate. 

Besides the United States Constitution for the whole 
country, there are as many State constitutions as there 
are States, each providing a plan of government for its 
State alone. State constitutions were adopted by the 
various States early in the Revolutionary War, and in 
fact the United States Constitution was modeled largely 
upon these earlier State constitutions. In every State 
government there is a lawmaking branch, or legislature, 
consisting of two houses; a law-enforcing branch, con- 
sisting of the governor and some other officials ; and a 
law-exj:>laiuing branch, consisting of several different 
kinds of courts. The members of the legislature, the 
governor, and in most States the judges of the State 
courts, are elected by the people. In minor details, how- 
ever, the State constitutions vary greatly. 

Thus the citizens of every State have to obey not only 
the laws made by Congress, but also those made by the 
State legislature. But the laws made by Congress nmst 
be in harmony with the United States Constitution ; and 
the laws made by the legislature must be in harmony 
with the State constitution, and also must not conflict 
with the United States Constitution or tlje laws of (Con- 
gress. The United States Constitution and the laws 
made under it are supreme ; in case of dispute as to the 

" bill," before it becomes a law. The old Contineutal Congress, uiidei- the Articles or 
Coiifed(.Tatioi), was eoiiiposed of a single bouse. 



1789] PLAN OF GOVERNMENT 167 

interpretation of this Constitution, the United States Su- 
preme Court is the final judge. 

But although the United States government is su- 
preme, far more laws are made by State legislatures than 
by Congress, and far more disputes are settled in State 
courts than in United States courts. The reason is 
that the United States Constitution gives Congress the 
right to make laws on only a few subjects ; on all the 
rest each State makes its own laws as though it were 
an independent country. The legislatures make the 
laws on such subjects as marriage and divorce, wills, 
the descent of property, contracts, and many others, and 
for punishing nearly all crimes ; ^ for the United States 
Constitution does not give Congress power to make laws 
on these subjects.^ Also, local government, or the gov- 
ernment of counties, cities, towns, etc., is entirely under 
the control of the legislatures. In all these matters, 
therefore, there are great differences between different 
States.^^ 

COLLATERAL READINGS 

War on the Ocean. — Fiske's American Revolution, vol. ii. pp. 116-130. 
The Constitutional Convention. — Schouler's History of the Unitsd States, vol. i. 
pp. 36-47. 

1 The political rights and duties of citizens depend more on State law than on 
United States law. It is the State which prescribes the qualifications of voters and 
creates most of the offices to be filled by popular election. The qualifications and 
choice of jurors in United States courts are governed by the laws of Congress, but 
those of jurors in the far more numerous State courts are governed by State law. 

2 Read the Constitution, in the appendix of this book ; from Article I., Sectiou VIII., 
make a list of the chief subjects on which Congress makes the law. 

3 This is the chief cause of the differences in the names and duties of county, town, 
and city offices. The powers of the local governments, however, are in all States 
distributed among diflfereut officers. The lawmakers (making laws or ordinances on 
subjects assigned to them by State law) are generally the county commissioners or 
board of supervisors in counties, the city council or board of aldermen in cities, and in 
some States the whole body of citizens in towns. The chief law-enforcing officers are 
the sheriff in counties, the mayor in cities, and the selectmen or supervisor in towns. 
Tliere are local courts presided over by county and city judges, and by justices of the 
peace. 



168 



THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS 



1. Quarrels with the Mother Country, 



a. Navigation Acts, etc. 

b. Powers or the Kuyal Governors 



2. Causes of 
American 
Revolution 



the 



1. Enforcement of Navigation Acts. 

2. Taxation without Repre- ( ?• stamp Act 

sentatioii i "■ 1 ownshend Acts, 

seniauon. ^ ^ Mutiny Act. 

3. Boston Mussacie. 

4. Boston Tea Party. 

5. Climax reached. 



3. First Continental Coni^ress (1774). 



4. Events of 1775. 
(1st Year of War.) 



} a. Pescription. 



b. Lflccts. 



5. Events of 1776. J 
(2d Year of War.) ^ 



6. Events of 1777. 
(8d Year of War.) 



7. Events of 1778. 
(4th Year of War.) 



8. Events of 1779. 
(5th Year of War.) 



9. Events of 1780. 
(Otn Year of War.) 



10. Events of 1781. 
(7th Year of War.) 



1. Battle of Lexington. 

2. Battle of Bunker Hill. 

3. Cajiture of Tieonderoga. 

4. Second Continental Congress. 

5. Condition of Washinjitons Army. 

6. Expedition iigainst Canada. 

C 1. Evacuation of Boston. 

2. Attack on Foi-t Moultrie. 

3. Declaration of Independence. 
' a. Bfittlt' nf Long Island, 

h. Tllr K.^iClipt' 



4. Campaign near N. Y. 

5. Robert Morris. 

6. Battle of Trenton. 

1. Battle of Princeton. 

2. Campaign in Penn. 

3. Campaign in the North. 



W aaliington's Ketriat. 
d. Fliglit tbrougli Nuw Jersey. 



Description. 
Effects. 



n. Battle of Brandy wine. 
b Battle ot Gerniantown. 

a. Plan. 

b. Burgoyne's Invasion. 

c. Burgoyne's Dittiriilties. 

d Battles of Saratoga. | »; Effe7l7""^' 



Winter in Valley Forge. 
Aid from France. 
Battle of Monmouth. 
Campaign in Rhode Island. 
Wyoming Massacre. 

Campaign in the South. < b. 
Campaign in the North. 



2. 

3. Naval Exploits. 

1. Campaign in the South. 

2. Continental Paper Money. 

3. Arnold's Treason. 



British Confiiicst of Georgia. 
British Attack on Charleston. 
l''reiich-Ain. Attack on Savatniab. 
n. In ('.Minecticiit. 

b. Capture of Stiiny Point 

c. SuilivHti's E-xpedition. 

d. Clark 8 C'ouquist ol the West 
n. Privateers. 

b. PaulJoues. 

n. Capture of Charleston. 

b. Battli- of Camden. 

r. Partisan Warfare - Marion, Sumter. 

Pickens, Lee. etc. 
d. Kings Mountain. 



1. Cahipaign in the South. 

2. Campaign in Virginia. 



Battle of Cowpens. 
•s Ketreat. 
anipaign Closed. 
Ravages by Arnold and Cornwallis 
" " rktown. 



Co. B 

n. a 

( c. C. 

C a. Ravages by 
< b. Sii'ge of Vol 
(c. Ettect. 



11. 



Results of the 
War. 



1. Difficulties of the Country and Army. 

2. Peace (1783). 

3. The Western Lands. 

4. Weakness of the Federal Government. 

In. The Convention. 
6. Fi'ileralists and Anti-Federalists. 
r. Katllicatinn. 
d. First Presidential F-lectiim 
e. Plan of lioveninrnt. 



EPOCH I Y.— DEVELOPMENT OF THE 
STATES (TO 1861) 

WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION (1789-1797)^ 

Washington's Inauguration (April 30, 1789). — In the 
choice of the first President of the United States, all hearts 
turned instinctively to Washington. With deep regret he 
left his quiet home at Mount Vernon for the tumults of 
political life. His journey to New York was a continual 
ovation. Crowds of gayly dressed people bearing baskets 
and garlands of flowers, and hailing his ap^^earanee with 

1 George Washington was born February 22, 1732; died December 14, 1799. He was 
left fatherless at eleven years of age, and bis education was directed by his mother, a 
woman of strong character, who kindly, but firmly, exacted implicit obedience. Of 
her Washington learned his first lessons in self-command. Although he was bashful 
and hesitating in his speech, his language was clear and manly. Having compiled a 
code of morals and good manners for his own use, he rigidly observed all its quaint 
and formal rules. Before his thirteenth year he had copied forms for all kinds of legal 
and mercantile papers. His manuscript sclioolbooks. which still exist, are models of 
neatness and accuracy. His favorite amusements were of n military character; he 
made soldiers of his playmates, and officered all the mock parades. He was of gentle 
blood and high social rank. He inherited some wealth, and acquired more through 
marriage and fortunate investments. On his Potomac farms he had hundreds of 
slaves, and at his Mount Vernon home he was like the prince of a wide domain, free 
from dependence or restraint. He was fond of equipage and the appurtenances of 
liigh life, and although her always rode on horseback, his family had a "chariot and 
four," with "black postilions in scarlet and white li\ery." This generous style of 
living, added perhaps to his native reserve, exposed him to the charge of aristocratic 
feeling. While at home he spent much of his time in riding and hunting. He rose 
early, ate his breakfast of coi-n cake, honey, and tea, and then rojlo about his estates ; 
his evenings he passed with his family around the blazing hearth, retiring between 
nine and ten. He loved to linger at the table, craclring nuts and relating his adven- 
tures. In personal appearance, Washington was over six feet in height, robust, grace- 
ful, and perfectly erect. His manner was formal and dignified. He was more solid 
than brilliant, and had more judgment than genius. He had great dread of public life, 

169 



17U 



WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION 



[1789 



shouts of joy, met him at every village. On the balcony 
of old Federal Hall, New York city, he took the oath to 
support the Constitution of the United States. 




WASHINGTON'S KNTUV INTO NEW YoKK. 

Difficulties beset the new government on every hand. 
The treasury was empty, and the United States had no 
credit. The Indians were hostile. Pirates from the Bar- 
bary States attacked our ships, and American citizens were 

and cared little for books. A coiisistent Cliristiau, he was a vestryman and ref^iilar 
attendant of the Episcopal Church. A flnu advocate of free inetitiitiona, he still 
believed in a stronj; fiovernnieut and strictly enforced laws. As President he care- 
fully weighed his decisions; but, his policy ouce settled, he pursued it with steadiness 
and difoiity, however great the opposition. As an officer he was brave, enterprising, 
and cautious. ITis (-ampaigns were rarely startling, but always judicious. He w.as 
capable of great endurance. Calm in defeat, sober in victory, commanding at all 
times, and irresistil)le when arousc<l, ho exercised equal authority over himself and 
his army. His last illness was brief, and his closing hours were marked by his usual 
calmness and dignity. Europe and America vied in tributes to his memory. Haid Lord 
Brougham, " Uutil time shall be no more, a test of the progress which our race has 
made in wisdoui and virtue will be derived from the veneration paid to the immortal 
name of Washington." Washington left no children. It has been beautifully said, 
"Providence left him childless tliat his country might call him Father." 



1789] DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 171 

languishing in the dungeons of Algiers. Spain refused us 
the navigation of the Mississippi. Great Britain had not 
yet condescended to send a minister to our government, 
and had made no treaty of commerce with us. We shall 
see how wisely Washington and his cabinet' met these 
difficulties. 

Domestic Affairs. — Finances. — By the advice of Alexan- 
der Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury, Congress agreed 
to assume the debts contracted by the States during the 
Revolution, and to pay the national debt in full, excepting 
the Continental money. To provide funds, taxes were 
levied on imported goods and the distillation of spirits. 
A mint and a national bank were established at Phila- 
delphia. By these measures the credit of the United 
States was put upon a firm basis." 

The National Capital was at first New York. But at the 
second session of Congress the seat of government was 
transferred to Philadelphia. There it was to remain for 
ten years, and then (1800) be removed to the District of 
Columbia, a tract of laud ten miles square ceded for this 
purpose by Maryland and Virginia.^ Here a city was laid 
out in the midst of a wilderness, containing only here and 

1 Three executive departments were now established — the Department of Foreign 
Affairs (now the Department of State), the Department of the Treasury, and the De- 
partment of War. The heads of these departments (Thomas Jefferson, Alexander 
Hamilton, and General Henry Knox) were called Secretaries, and, with the Attorney- 
General (Edmund Randolph), formed the President's cabinet. 

2 The credit of these plans belongs to Hamilton. Daniel Webster said of him, " He 
smote the rock of the national. resources, and abundant streams of revenue burst 
forth. He touched the dead corpse of public credit, and it sprang upon its feet." 

sThe site for the new capital was not far from the geographical center of the 
inhabited part of the country. Its location, however, was the result of a political 
"deal " or bargain. At first only a minority in Congress favored a site so far south, 
and at the same time Congress seemed likely to vote against the assumption of the 
State debts. To .secure a majority for assumption and for the southern location of the 
capital, the friends of each measure combined in voting for both. The District of Co- 
lumbia now contains but 70 square miles. The 30 square miles lying south of the Poto- 
mac were receded to Virginia in 1846. 
B. HIST u. s.— 11 



172 



WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION 



[1793 



there a small cottage. The "Father of his Country" laid 
the corner stone of the Caj^^)itol (1791]). 

Wliitney''s Cotton Gin (171)2). — The cotton gin, a machine 
for rapidlj' separating cotton from the seed, was invented 
by Eli Whitney, of Massachusetts.' This greatly reduced 
the cost of producing cotton, for it had formerly taken a 
day's work to clean a pound of the fiber. The cotton gin 
was destined to have a profound influence on our history. 
Whishj RehelUon (1794). — Great opposition was made 
to the taxes levied by Congress. In western Pennsylvania 
the settlers agreed that they would paj' no tax on whisky. 
Tlie rioters were so numerous that 15,000 of the militia 
were ordered out to subdue them. Finding the govern- 
ment in earnest, the malcontents laid down their arms. 

Indian Wars. — The Indians of the Northwest attacked 
the growing settlements in the Ohio valley. Two armies 
sent against the Indians were defeated. At last General 

Wayne—" Mad An- 
thony " — was put 
in command. Lit- 
tle Turtle, the In- 
dian chief, now ad- 
vised peace, declar- 
ing that the Ameri- 
cans had "a leader 
who never slept." 
But his counsel was 
rejected, and a des- 
perate battle was 
fought on the Mau- 
mee (August 20, 




INDIAN WARS IN TJIF, NORTHWEST TKRRITORY. 



1 Whitney was at this time staying near Savannah, in (Jeorgia, at the home of the 
widow of General Greene, the famous Revolutionary commander. 



1794] 



FOREIGN AFFAIRS 



173 



1794). Wayne routed the Indians, chased them a great 
distance, laid waste their towns for fifty miles, and com- 
pelled them to make a treaty^ giving np about 25,000 
square miles of land north of the Ohio. 

New States. — Three new States were added to the orig- 
inal thirteen during this administration — Vermont, Ken- 
tucky, and Tennessee (p. 244). 

Foreign Affairs. — Great Britain. — Complaints were made 
in England that debts could not be collected in America 
as guaranteed by the treaty of 1783. On the other hand, 
the Americans complained that the British armies had 
carried off their negroes, that posts were still held on the 
frontier, and that 



our seamen were 
impressed into the 
British navy. Fi- 
nally, Chief Justice 
Jay was sent as en- 
voy extraordinary 
to Great Britain. 
He negotiated a 
new treaty (1794), 

which was ratified by the Senate after a 
violent opposition.^ 

Spain and Algiers. — The next year 
(1795), a treaty was made with Spain, securing to the 
United States the free navigation of the Mississippi, and 
fixing the boundary of Florida, Avhich had previously 




1 He told tliem, it is said, that if they ever violated this agreement he would rise 
from his gravo to fight them. He was long remembered by the Western Indians. 

2 This treaty enfoiced the payment of the English debts, but did not in turn forbid 
the impressment of American seamen. Its advocates were threatened with violence 
by angry mobs. Hamilton was stoned at a public meeting; insults wore offered to 
the British minister ; and Jay was burned in effigy. 



174 WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION [1795 

been in dispute. About the same time, a treaty was 
coneluded with Algiers, by which our captives were ran- 
somed and the Mediterranean commerce was opened to 
American vessels. 

France. — The Americans warmly symi)athized with 
France, and when war broke out between that country 
and Great Britain, Washington had great difficulty in 
preserving neutrality. He saw that the true American 
policy was to keep free fi'om Europ«ian alliances. Genet 
(zli' na'), the French minister, relying on the po[)ular feel- 
ing, went so far as to fit out, in the ports of the United 
States, privateers to prey on British commerce. He also 
trie<l to arouse the people against the government. At 
length, at Washington's request. Genet was recalled. But, 
as we shall see, the difficulty did not end. 

Political Parties. — During the discussion of these vari- 
ous questions, two parties had arisen. Jefferson and 
Madison became leaders of the De!nocratie-Repu>)lican 
party, — generally called the Republican party, — which 
opposed the United States Bank, the British treaty, and 
the assumption of the State debts. Hamilton and Adams 
were leaders of the Federal pai-ty, which supported the 
administration. The two parties differed ra<lically in 
their interpretation of the Constitution. The Republicans 
were " strict constinictionists "; that is, they denied to the 
United States government any power not clearly and ex- 
pressly gi'anted by the Constitution. For instance, they 
said the government had no right to establish a bank, 
because the Constitution nowhere says anything about 
this matter. The Federalists, on the other hand, were 
"liberal constructionists"; that is, they interpreted the 
Constitution liberally, claiming that certain general clauses 
in the Constitution warranted the exercise of a vast num- 



1796] POLITICAL PARTIES 175 

ber of po Wei's not definitely specified.' In 1793 Washing- 
ton and Adams had been reeleeteil ; but Washington now 
declined to serve a thini term, and issued his famous 
Fareicell Address, So close was the contest between the 
rival parties that Adams, the Federal candidate, was 
elected President by a majority of only three electoral 
votes over Jeffei-son, the Republican nominee, who became 
Vice President,- 



ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION ^lygy-iSoi)' 

Domestic Affairs. — Alien and Sedition Lairs. — Owing 
to the violent denunciations of the government by the 
friends and emissaries of France, the Alien and Sedition 

I Tlie Federalists iboagbt Ibe geoeriil govemmejit ahoald be in»de strong. Tbe Re- 
publieaniv tearing )e«t tbe ne' public t^bould be«ome a luonaretay. and the Pr««ideiit a 
kins. o|>po$ed ibis idea and advocated State rigbt«. lu tbe eleeiioq of 1T<« tbe Re- 
pablieans were aeeu^^d of being friends of France, and tbe Federalists of being 
attacbed to Gne^at Britain and its institutions. Tbis Rei>ut>lican i^uty was tbe fon^ 
runner of tbe preisent Democratic party, and mast not be coufounded with tbe pres- 
ent Republican party. 

- Jefferson was elected Vice President becaose tbe Federal eleciora, wbo wer* in 
a m^tritT, did not all write tbe same name in tbe second place on tbeir ballots. 
Tbere was no such thing as a party national convention for many years after this. In 
tbe election of 1T9S, bowevi-r, it was generally understood wbo were tbe presidential 
candidates; but for tbe secoiMl place on tbe ticket each party scattered votes among 
several «lifferent men. 

5 John .vdams was bom ITSS ; died isaft. He was a member of the First and tbe 
Seoond Continental Congrt'^ss, aini nominated Washington as commander in chief. 
Jefferson wTt>te tbe Dei'laration «>< Indei^ndence, l>ut Adams secured its adoption in a 
tluve-days debate- He was a tinfless worker, and bad tbe n'pataiion of having tho 
clearest bead and firmest heart of any man in Congress. As President, he lost tbe 
reputation he had gained as CongT>e*sman. His enemies accu-sed him of being a lu»d 
mdge of Uicn. of clinging to old unpopular notions, and of having little control over 
his temi^r. They also ridiculed his egotism, which they declai^tl to be inonlinate. 
He live»l, however, to see the prejudice against his administration give place to a 
juster estimate of his grv-at worth ai>d exalte«l integrity. Adams and Jefferson were 
Arm friends during tbe Revolution, but political strife alienated them. On their 
return to private life they be«*ame reconciled. They die<l on tl»e .«ame d;»y— the 
flftietb anniversary of .\iiu -rican iiide|»endeiKNf. Thus, by the passing away of these 
two iemai^al>le men. was made memorable (be 4th of July, ld3&. 



17G ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION • [1798 

Laws were passed. Under them, the President could 
expel from the country any foreigner whom he deemed 
injurious to the United States; and any one libeling Con- 
gress, the President, or the government, could be fined or 
imprisoned. The Sedition Law was a most unpopular 
measure, and its enforcement excited the bitterest feeling. 
Both it and the Alien Law were soon repealed. 

Foreign Affairs. — France. — French affairs early assumed 
a serious aspect. Our flag was insulted, our vessels were 
captured, and our envoys were refused audience by the 
French Directory unless a bribe should be paid.' The 
news of this insult aroused the nation, and the friends of 
France were silenced. Orders were issued to raise an 
army, of which Washington was appointed commander 
in chief." Hostilities had commenced on the sea, when 
Napoleon became the First Consul of France, and the war 
was happily arrested. 

Political Parties. — An intense party feeling prevailed 
during the entire administration. The unpopularity of 
the Alien and Sedition Laws reduced the vote for Adams 
and Pinckney, the Federal candidates. The Republican 
candidates, Jefferson and Burr, received the majority of 
votes; l)ut, as each had the same number, the election 
went to the House of Representatives, which chose Jeffer- 
son for President, thus leaving Burr to be Vice President. 

JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION (1801-1809)^ 

Purchase of Louisiana (ISOIl). — The most important event 
of Jefferson's administration was the purchase of Louisiana 

1 Charles C. Pinckney, our minister to France, is reported to have replied to 
this insulting demand, " Millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute." 

- It was at this time that the song Hail Colvnbia was wiitten. 

^ Thomas .Toffcrson was born 174:i ; died 1826. "Of all tlic public men who have 
Hgnred in the United States," says Parton, " he was incomparably the best scholar 



178 JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION [1803 

from Napoleon.' By treaty with France, over one million 
square miles of land and the full possession of the Missis- 
sippi wore obtained for $15,000,000. 

Domestic Affairs. — The Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804— 
1806). — On Jefferson's suggestion, Congress provided for 
an expedition to explore the country west of the Missis- 
sippi, about which very little was then known. Under the 
command of Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, officers 
in the army, this exploring party followed the Missouri 
River to its source, descended the Columbia to the Pacific 
Ocean, and returned by the same route. They were the 
first white men to cross this part of the continent, and 
their adventures were full of interest. 

and the raost variouely accomplished man." Ho ^va8 a hold horsoman, a ebillful 
hunU-r, an ele^aut penman, a flue violinist, a Inilliaut talker, a superior classical 
scholar, and was proficient in the modem lamLniages. On account of his talents he was 
styled "the Sage of Monticello." That immortal document, the Declaration of Inde- 
pendence, was, with the exception of a few words, entirely his work. lie was an 
ardent supporter of the doctrine of State rijrhts, and led the opposition to tlic Feder- 
alists. After he hecame President, however, he found the ditTkultj of aduiiuisterins 
the government upon that theory. "The executive authority had to be stretched 
until it cracked, to cover the purchase of Louisiana"; and he hccanic convinced on 
other occasions that the federal government, to use his own expression, must "show 
its teeth " Like Washington, he was of aristocratic hirtli, but his principles were 
intensely democratic. He hated ceremonies and titles; even " Mr." was dist;isteful to 
him. These traits were the more remarkable in one of his superior birth and educa- 
tion, and peculiarly endeared him to the common people. In his administration there 
were no more brilliant levees or courtly ceremonies, as in the days of Washington and 
Adams. Instead of delivering an address to Congress in person, as his predecessors 
did, he established the custom of sending a, written message. He always dressed in 
plain clothes. The unostentatious example thus set by the nation's President was 
w;so in its effects. Soon the public debt was diminished, the treasury was replenished, 
and the army and navy were reduced. A man of such marked character necessarily 
made bitter enemies, but Jefferson commanded the respect of his opponents, while 
the admiration of his friends was unbounded. The last seventeen years of his life 
were passed at Monticello, near his birthplace. He died poor in money, but rich in 
honor. 

1 This vast territory had boon ceded to France by Spain in 1800. When news of the ces- 
sion reached New Orleans, the officer in charge stopped 1 he free navigation of the Missis- 
sippi by Americans. The citizens west of the Appalachians demanded the forcilde 
seizure of New Orleans, but Jefferson instead sent to France an ofter to buy the city and 
a small adjoining area. Napoleon thercipoi! offered to sell the entire province, and 
Jefferson accepted the opportunity, though he doubted his constitutional right to do so. 




179 



180 JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION [1804 

The Twelfth Amendment. — Previous to this time eleven 
amendments had been made to the Constitution, in the 
manner provided by that instrument; but they were all 
in th(! nature of guarantees against oppressive action by 
the national government. Now was made a change in the 
plan off/ovemment established by the Constitution. By the 
original method of voting prescribed for the presidential 
electors, no distinction was made between persons voted 
for as President and those really voted for as Vice Presi- 
dent; and it was possible that by some mistake or in- 
trigue the wrong man might bo elected to the higher 
office. By the Twelfth Amendment to the Constitution, 
the electors vote separately for President and for Vice 
President, thus avoiding any possibility of such mischance. 

Aaron Bitn; the Vice President, was Alexander Hamil- 
ton's bitter rival, both in law and in politics, and at 
last challenged him to a duel. Hamilton accepted. The 
affair took place at Weehawken, N. J., on the west bank 
of the Hudson (July 11, 1804). Hamilton fell at the first 
fire, on the very spot where his eldest son had been 
killed shortly before in the same manner. His death pro- 
duced the most profound sensation, and did much to put 
a stop to the practice of dueling, which was then common. 
In the presidential election of 1804, the Republican candi- 
dates, who were elected, were not Jefferson and Burr, but 
Jefferson and Clinton. Burr afterwards went west and 
organized an expedition with the avowed object of forming 
a settlement in northern Mexico. Being suspected, how- 
ever, of a design to break up the Union and found a 
separate confederacy beyond the Appalachian Mountains, 
he was arrested and tried (1807) on a charge of treason.' 

' While awiiitinfi liis tri;il Burr was comiiiittcd to tlio roniiiKHi .jail — a wri'tcliecl 
fate for the man who ouce lacked but a siuglc vote to make hiiu President. 



1807] FOREIGN AFFAIRS 181 

Although acquitted for want of proof, he yet became an 
outcast. 

FultoiPs Steamhoat. — The year 1807 was made memo- 
rable by the first voyage from New York to Albany of 
Robert Fulton's steamboat, the Chrmout. Thus the Hud- 
son could boast of having the first successful steamboat 
in the w;orld/ 

ISleiv State admitted — Ohio (p. 244). 

Foreign Affairs. — War ivlth Tripoli. — The Barbary 
States, of which Tripoli is one, for many years sent out 
cruisers which captured vessels of all Christian nations, 
and held their crews as slaves until ransomed. The 
United States, like the European nations, was accustomed 
to pay annual tribute to these pirates to secure exemption 
from their attacks. The pasha of Tripoli became so 
haughty that he declared war (1801) against the United 
States. Jefferson sent a fleet which blockaded" the port 
and repeatedly bombarded the city of Tripoli. The 
frightened pasha was at last glad to make peace. 

Great Britain and France. — During this time Great 
Britain and France were engaged in a desperate struggle. 
Great Britain tried to prevent trade with France, and, in 
turn. Napoleon forbade all commerce with Great Britain. 

1 other inventors, botb European and American, had experimented with steam- 
boats before this time. John Fiteh showed one on the Delaware in 1787, and in the 
summer of 1790 it made regular trips between Philadelphia and Trenton, though it 
failed to pay expenses. Oliver Evans at Philadelphia, William Longstreet on the 
SavaBnah River, and John Stevens at Hoboken, also made steamboats before 1807. 
But it was not till after the trip of the Clernwnt that the steamboat was regarded 
with favor and came into general use. The first steamboat to cross the Atlantic was 
the SaiHtiuufh, in 1810; but she used sails as well as paddle wheels. 

2 During this blockade a valiant exploit was performed by Lieutenant Decatur. 
The frigate Philadclp/iia liad unfortunately grounded and fallen into the enemy's 
hands. Concealing his men below, he entered tlie harbor with a small vessel, which 
he Wiirped alongside the P/iiladclpfiia, in the chiwacter ot a ship in distress. As the 
two vessels struck, the pirates first suspected his design. Instantly he leaped aboard 
with his men, swept the affrighted crew into tlie sea, set the ship on fire, and, amid a 
tremendous cannonade from the shore, escaxied without losing a man. 



182 



JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION 



[1807 



As the United States was neutral, its ships did most of 
the carrj'ing trade of Europe. Our vessels tlms became 
the piey of both the hostile nations. Besides, Great Brit- 
ain claimed the right of stopping American vessels on the 
high seas, to search for seamen of English birth ^ and 
press them into the British navy. The feeling, already 
deep, was intensified when the British frigate Leopard 




1 M l'Kh.>-l ' 



fired into the American frigate Chesapeake, off the coast 
of Virginia. Tlie American vessel, being wholly unpre- 
pared for battle, soon struck her colors. Four of the 
crew, three being Americans by birth, were taken, on the 
pretense that they were deserters. Jefferson immediately 
ordered all British vessels of war to quit the waters of the 

1 The American doctrine was that a foreigner naturalized be<'aiiie an Aiuorlcan 
citizen ; tbe British, "Once an Englisliman, always an liuglisbman." 



1SC8J POLITICAL PARTIES 183 

United States. Though G-reat Britain disavowed the act, 
reparation was tardy, and Congress passed an Embargo 
Act, forbidding American vessels to sail for any foreign 
port. This was intended to protect our ships from cap- 
ture, and to injure Great Britain and France by cutting 
off supplies from them. It was so injurious to our- 
selves, however, in ruining our commerce, that it was 
removed after about a year; but all intercourse with Great 
Britain or France was forbidden. 

Political Parties. — While the country was in this fever- 
ish state, Jefferson's second term expired. Like Wash- 
ington, he declined to serve a third term, and their 
example has been followed ever since. James Madison, 
the Republican candidate, who was in sympathy with 
Jefferson's views, was elected as his successor by a large 
majority. The Republicans generally favored a war with 
England, while the Federalists bitterly opposed the war 
policy. 

COLLATERAL READINGS 

The Louisiana Purchase.— Seliouler's History of the United States, vol. ii. pp. 37--51. 
The Embargo.— Schoulcr, vol. ii. pp. 159-165, 173-196. 



MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION (1809-1817)1 

Domestic Affairs. — Battle of Tippecanoe (November 7, 
1811). — British emissaries had been busy arousing the In- 

1 James Madison was bom in Virginia in 1751 ; died 1836. In the Convention of 1787 
lie was one of tlie strongest advocates of the Constitution, and did much to secure its 
adoption. From his political principles he was obliged, though reluctantly, to ojipose 
AVashington's administration, which lie did iu a courteous and temperate manner. He 
led his party in Congress, where hoi-cmained till 1797. The next year he drafted the 
famous " Virginia Resolutions of 1798," enunciating the doctrine of State rights, which, 
with the accompanying "Report" in their defense (and the similar "Kentucky 
Resolutions" drafted by Jefferson), have been the great text-book of the Democratic 
party. He was Secretary of State to Jefferson. After his presidential services he 
retired from public station. Madison's success was not so much the result of a great 



184 



MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION 



[1811 



dians to war. Tecum'seh, a famous chief, seized the 
opportunity to form a confederacy of the Northwestern 

tribes. Governor Harrison, 
of Indiana Territory, who 
proceeded against them with 
a sti'ong force, was attacked 
by night near the Tippecanoe. 
The Indians were led by Te- 
cumseh's brother, "the Proph- 
et," but tliey were routed 
with great slaughter. 

Foreign Affairs. — Great 
Britain. — This Indian war 
aroused the people of the 
West against England. Also, 
the impressment of our sea- 
men and the capture of our 
ships continued. The British government went so far as 
to send war vessels into our waters to seize our ships as 
prizes. The American frigate President^ having hailed the 
British sloop of war Little Belt, received a cannon shot in 
reply. The fire was returned, and the sloop was soon dis- 
abled; a civil answer was then receiv^ed. The British 
government refusing to relincjuish its offensive course, all 
hope of peace was abandoned. Finally (June 19, 1812), 
war was formally declared against Great Britain. 




■ SCALE OF MILES 

E ** ■ 6 20 -lb o'o s'u l6o 



VICINITY OF THE TIPPECANOK KIVEK. 



natural ability as of intense application and severe accuracy. His mind was strong, 
clear, and well liulanced, and liis memory was woiulcrful. Like John Qnincy Adams, 
he had laid up a frrcat store; of Icarniii;,', which he used in the most skillful manner. 
He always extiausted the subject upon which he spoke. *' Wlien he had finished, 
nothing remained to he said." His private character was spotless. His manner was 
simple, modest, and uniformly courteous to his opi)oncnts. He enjoyed wit and 
humor, and told a story admirably. His sunny temi)cr remained with him to the last. 
Some friends coming' to visit hini duriu},' his final illness, he sank smilingly back on his 
couch, sayiufT, "I always talk better when I lie." It has been said of him, "It was 
bis rare good fortune to have a whole nation for his fiieuds." 



1812] 



FOREIGN AFFAIRS 



185 



SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN, OR "WAR OF 1812 

1812 



(1812-14) 



Surrender of Detroit (August 16, 1812). — As in the 
Revolutionary War, it was determined to invade Canada. 
General William Hull accordingly crossed over from De- 
troit and encamped on Canadian soil, but soon retreated. 




The British under Gen- 
eral Brock and the 
Indians under Tecum- 

seh followed him to Detroit, and, landing, advanced at 
once to assault the fort. The garrison was in line, and 
the gunners were standing with lighted matches, await- 
ing the order to fire, when Hull ordered the white flag 
to be raised. Amid the tears of his men, it is said, and 
without oven stipulating for the honors of war, he sur- 
rendered not only Detroit, with its garrison and stores, 
but the whole of Michigan Territorv. 



186 



MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION 



[1812 



Battle of Queenstown Heights (October 13). — In the fall 
another attempt was made to invade Canada. A small 
body of soldiers was sent by General Van Rensselaer 
across the Niagara Eiver, and drove the British from their 
position at Queenstown Heights. They were soon obliged 
to surrender, however, since the rest of the army, com- 
posed of State militia, denied the constitutional right of 
their commander to take them out of the State, and re- 
fused to follow their comrades to the Canadian shore. 




CONSTITLTION AND GUERRIKRE. 



Naval Victories. — These signal disgraces by land were 
in striking contrast to our successes on the sea. 

ConstiUdion and Guerriere (August 19). — The fight off 
the Banks of Newfoundland between the American frig- 
ate Constitution (popularly called Old Ironsides) and the 
Guerriere (gar e ar') is memorable. Tlie latter vessel 



1812] SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN 187 

opened fire first. Captain Isaac Hull ^ refused to answer 
until he had brought his ship into the exact position he 
desired, when he poured broadside after broadside into 
his antagonist, sweeping her deck, shattering her hull, and 
cutting her masts and rigging to pieces. The Guerriere 
soon became unmanageable, and was forced to surrender. 
81ie was so badly injured that she could not be brought 
into port; while the Constitution, in a few hours, was 
ready for another fight. 

Frolic and Wasp (October 18). — The next noted achieve- 
ment was the defeat -of the British brig Frolic by the 
sloop of war Wasp off the coast of North Carolina. When 
the Frolic was boarded by her captors, her colors were 
still flying, there being no one to haul them down. The 
man at the helm was the only sailor left on deck un- 
harmed. 

Other victories followed. Privateers scoured every sea, 
inflicting great injury on the British commerce. During 
the year over 300 prizes were captured. 

The Effect of these Naval Victories was to arouse enthu- 
siasm and inspire confidence. Volunteer corps were 
rapidly formed. Madison was reelected, thus stamping 
his war policy with the popular approval. 

1813 

Plan of the Campaign. — Three armies were raised for 
the campaign of 1813 : (1) the Army of the North, under 
General Hampton, along Lake Champlain ; (2) the Army 
OF THE Center, under General Dearborn, on the Niagara 
Eiver; and (3) the Army of the West, under General 
Harrison, of Tippecanoe fame. Ail three were to invade 

1 Nephew of General Hull. His bravery retrieved the uanie from its disgrace. 



188 MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION . [1813 

Canada. Pvoctor was the British general, and Tecumseh 
had command of his Indian allies.' 

The Armies of the Center and North did but little. Gen- 
eral Dearborn attacked York (now Toronto), General Pike 
gallantly leading the assault.' The city was burned. 
Next, an expedition against Montreal was begun by this 
army, now under Wilkinson, and the army under Hamp- 
ton ; but the plan was abandoned, after a little fighting, 
before the junction of the two armies had been effected. 

Army of the West. — A detachment of General Harri- 
son's men was captured at Frenchtown, on the River 
Raisin,^ by Proctor, who later besieged Harrison himself at 
Fort Meigs (megz). Repulsed here, Proctor stormed Fort 
Stephenson, garrisoned by only 160 men, under Major 
Croghan, and was again repulsed. As yet, however, the 
British held Michigan Territory and continued to threaten 
Ohio. 

Perry's Victory (September 10) gave a new aspect to 
this year's campaign. When Captain Perry, then only 
twenty-seven years old, was assigned the command of the 

1 The KTeat object of the Indians in battle was to pet scalps, Proctor paying a regu- 
lar bounty for every one. They were therefore loath to take prisoners. 

2 Unfortunately, In the moment of success the magazine blew up, making fearful 
havoc. Pike was mortally wounded, but lived to hear the shouts of his men as they 
hauled down the British ensign. At a sign from him the captured flag was placed 
under his head, when he died, as he had wished, " like Wolfe, in the anus of victory." 

3 This party was stationed on the Maunieo, under General Winchester. Having 
learned that the people of Frenchtown feared an attack from the Indians, he allowed 
his military judgment to yield to liis humanity, and marched to their relief. He de- 
feated the enemy, but was soon attacked by a body of 1500 British and Indians under 
Proctor. Winchester was captured in the course of the battle, and at length his men 
surrendered under the solemn proniiso that tlieir lives and property should be safe. 
Proctor, however, immediately returned to Maiden with the British, leaving no guard 
over the American wounded. Thereupon, the Indians, maddened by liquor and the 
desire for revenge, mercilessly tomahawked many, set Are to the houses in which 
others lay, and carried the survivors to Detroit, where they were dragged through the 
streets and offered for sale to the inhabitants. Many of the women of that place gave 
for their ransom every article of value which they possessed. Tlie troops were Ken- 
tuckians, and the war ci-y of their sous was henceforth " Remember tlie Raisin." 



1813] SECOND WAE WITH GREAT BRITAIN 189 

flotilla on Lake Erie, the British were undisputed masters 
of the lake, while his fleet was to be, in part, made out of 
the trees in the forest. By indefatigable exertion he got 
nine vessels, carrying fifty-four guns, ready for action, 
when the British fleet of six vessels and sixty-three guns 
bore down upon his squadron. Perry's flagship, the Law- 
rence,^ engaged two of the heaviest vessels of the enemy, 
and fought them till but eight of his men were left. 




PERRY CARRYING HIS FLAG TO THE NIAGARA. 

He helped these to fire the last gun, and then, leap- 
ing into a boat, bore his flag to the Niagara unharmed, 
though the target for many shots from the British. 
Breaking through the enemy's line, and firing right and 
loft, within fifteen minutes after he mounted the deck of 
the Niagara he had won the victory. Perry at once wrote 
to General Harrison, " We have met the enemy, and they 
are ours." This laconic dispatch produced intense ex- 
citement throughout the country. 

1 From its masthead floated a blue pennant bearing the words of the dying Law- 
rence: "Don't sivo up the ship." (See p. 191.) 

C. HIST. U. S.— 12 



190 MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION [1813 

Battle of the Thames. — Proctor and Tecumseh were at 
Maiden with their motley array of British and Indians, 
2000 strong, waiting to lay waste the frontier. Harrison, 
at Sandusky Bay, was nearly i-eady to invade Canada, 
and at the news of Perry's victory pushed across the lake. 
Landing at Maiden, which he found deserted, Harrison 
hotly pursued the flying enemy, and overtook them on the 
River Thames. Having drawn up his troops, he ordered 
Colonel Johnson, with his Kentucky horsemen, to charge 
the British in front. Dashing through the forest, they 
broke the enemy's line, and, forming in their rear, pre- 
pared to pour in a deadly fire. The British surrendered, 
but Proctor escaped by the swiftness of his horse. John- 
son then pushed forward to attack the Indians. In the 
heat of the action a bullet, fired by Johnson himself, 
struck Tecumseh. With his death the savages lost all 
hope, and fled in confusion. 

Effect. — This victory, with Perry's, relieved Michigan 
Territory, gave us control of Lake Erie, and virtually de- 
cided the war. General Harrison returned amid the plau- 
dits of the nation. 

Naval Battles. — The American navy achieved some 
brilliant successes besides Perry's victory, but it was not 
uniformly victorious. 

Chesapeake and Shamton (June 1). — While Captain Law- 
rence was refitting the Chesapeake ' at Boston, a challenge 
was sent him to fight the Shannon, then Ijdng off the har- 
bor. Lawrence, although part of his crew were discharged, 
and the unpaid remainder were almost mutinous, consulted 
only his own heroic spirit, and put to sea. The action 
was brief. A hand grenade bursting in the Chesapeake^s 
arm chest, the enemy took advantage of the confusion 

1 This was the ill-staiied friiratc wbiili .struik her flag to the Leopard (p. 182). 



1813] SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN 191 

and boarded the vessel. A scene of carnage ensued. Law- 
rence, mortally wounded, was carried below. As he left 
the deck he exclaimed, " Don't give up the ship ! " But 
the feeble crew were soon overpowered and the colors 
hauled down. 

War with the Creeks. — Tecumseh had been (1811) 
among the Alabama Indians, and had aroused them to 
take up arms against the Americans. They accordingly 
formed a league (1813), and fell upon Fort Mimms, mas- 
sacring the garrison and 
the defenseless women 
and children. Volunteers 
flocked in from all sides 
to avenge this horrid deed. 
Under General Jackson,^ 
they drove the Indians 
from one place to another, 
until the latter took ref- 
uge on the Horseshoe 
Bend, where they fortified themselves for the last battle 
(March 27, 1814). The soldiers, with fixed bayonets, scaled 
their breastwork. Tj^o Creeks fought with the energy of 
despair, but 600 of their number were killed, and those 
who escaped were glad to make peace on any terms. 

Ravages on the Atlantic Coast. — In the spring the Brit- 
ish began devastating the Southern coast.^ Admiral Cock- 
burn (ko'burn), especially, disgraced the British navy by 

1 An event occurred on Jackson's marcli ■vrliicli illustrates his iron Tvill. For a long 
time his soldiers suffered extremely from famine, and at last they mutinied. General 
Jackson rode before the ranks. His left arm, shattered by a ball, was disabled, but in 
his ri.tjht he held a musket. Sternly ordering the men back to their places, he declared 
he would shoot the first who advanced. No one stirred, and soon all returned to their 
duty. 

2 New England was spared because of a belief that the Northern States were un- 
friendly to the war, and would yet return to a political union with Great Britain. 




5o i3o 



CREEK WAR. 



192 MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION [1813 

conduct worse than that of Cornwallis in the Revolution. 
Along the Virginia and Carolina coast he burned bridges, 
farmhouses, and villages ; robbed the inhabitants of their 
crops, stock, and slaves ; plundered churches of their com- 
munion services ; and murdered the sick in their beds. 

1814 

Battle of Lundys Lane. — An American army, under 
General Brown, crossed the Niagara Kiver once more, and 
for the last time invaded Canada. Fort Erie having been 
taken, General Winfield Scott, leading the advance, de- 
feated the British at Chip'pewa (July 5). A second en- 
gagement, one of the bloodiest battles of the war, was 
fought at Lundys Lane (July 25), within sound of Niagara 
Falls. The struggle lasted long after dark. The Ameri- 
cans, though gi'eatly outnumbered, won the victory,' but 
soon after retreated. 

Battle of Lake Champlain (September 11). — All but 
3000 of the troops at Plattsburg had gone to roi'nforce 
General Brown. Learning this fact, Prevost (preh vo'), the 
commander of the British army in Canada, took 12,000 
veteran soldiers who had served under Wellington, and 
marched against that place. As he adv^anced to the 
attack, the British fleet on Lake Champlain assailed the 
American squadron under Commodore Macdonough 
(-d5n'o).'- The attacking squadron was nearly annihilated. 
The little army in Plattsburg, by its vigorous defense, 

1 A battery, located on a height, was the key to the British position. Calling Colo- 
nel Miller to Lis side, just after nightfall, General Brown asked him if he eoujd take it. 
"I'll try, sir," was the fearless reply. Heading his regiment, he steadily marched up 
the height and secured the coveted position. Three times the Britisli rallied lor its re- 
capture, but us many limes were hurled back. At mitlnight they retired from the 
Held. 

2 One of his vessels he had built in twenty days, from trees growing on the bank of 
the lake. 



1814] SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN 193 

prevented Prevost from crossing the Sar'anac River. 
When he found that his ships were lost, he fled precipi- 
tately, leaving his sick and wounded and large quantities 
of military stores. 

Ravages on the Atlantic Coast. — The British blockade 
extended this year to the North. Commerce was so com- 
pletely destroyed that the lamps in the lighthouses were 
extinguished as being of use only to the British. Several 
towns in Maine were captured. Stonington, Conn., was 
bombarded. Cockburn continued his depredations along 
the Chesapeake. General Ross marched to Washington 
(August 24) and burned the Capitol, the Congressional 
library, and other public buildings and records, with pri- 
vate dwellings and storehouses. He then sailed around 
by sea to attack Baltimore. The army, having disem- 
barked below the city (September 12), moved against it 
by land, while the fleet bombarded Fort McHenry from 
the river. The troops, however, met with a determined 
resistance; and, as the fleet had made no impression on 
the fort,' soon retired to their ships. 

Great excitement was produced by these events. Every 
seaport was fortified ; the militia were organized, and citi- 
zens of all ranks labored with their own hands to throw 
up defenses. Bitter reproaches were cast upon the ad- 
ministration because of its mode of conducting the war. 
Delegates from New England States met at Hartford 
(December 15) in a convention which demanded that the 
defense of each State should be intrusted to the State 
government, asked for various amendments to the national 
Constitution, and hinted at a possible dissolution of the 
Union. The meeting was branded with odium by friends 

' During the bombardiuent of Fort McHeury, Francis 8. Key, au Aiueriean de- 
tained ou board a British vessel, wrote tl^e soug Ttie IStar-Spanc/led Banner. 



194 MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION [1814 

of the administration, and " a Hartford Convention Fed- 
eralist" was long a term of reproach. 

Peace, as afterwards appeared, was made even before the 
Hartford convention adjourned. The treaty was signed 
at the city of Ghent, in Europe, December 24. Before 
the news of it reached this country, however, a terrible 
and, as it proved, unnecessary battle had been fought in 
the South. 

Battle of New Orleans (January 8, 1815). — A powerful 
fleet and a force of 12,000 men, under General Pakenham, 
undertook the capture of New Orleans. General Jackson, 
anticipating this attempt, had thrown up intrenchments^ 
several miles below the city. The British advanced 
steadily, in solid columns, heedless of the artillery fire 
which swept their ranks, until they came within range of 
the Kentucky and Tennessee riflemen, when they wavered. 
Their officers rallied them again and again. General 
Pakenham fell. Neither discipline nor bravery could 
prevail. General Lambert, who succeeded to the com- 
mand, drew off his men in the night, hopelessly defeated, 
after a loss of over 2000; while the American loss was but 
eight killed and thirteen wounded. 

Results of the War. — The treaty said nothing about 
impressment ; but Great Britain impressed no more 
Americans. The national debt was $127,000,000, but 
within twenty years it was paid fi-om the ordinary rev- 
enue. The United States had secured the respect of 

' Jackson at first madd his intrcucliiiients, in part, of cotton bales, but a red-hot 
cannon ball having llred the cotton and scattered the burning fragments among the 
barrels of gunpowder, it was found necessary to remove the cotton entirely. The 
only defense ot the Auiericans during the battle was a bank of earth five feet high, 
and a ditch in front. The British were tried and disciplined troops, while very few 
of the Americans had ever seen fighting. Besides, the British were nearly double 
their number. But our men were accustomed to the use of the rifle, and were the best 
marksmen in the world. 



1816] POLITICAL PARTIES 195 

European nations/ since our navy had dared to meet, and 
often successfully, the greatest maritime power in the 
world. The impossibility of any foreign ruler gaining a 
permanent foothold on our territory was shown. The 
fruitless invasion of Canada by the militia, compared with 
the brave defense of their own territory by the same men, 
proved that our strength lay in defensive warfare. 

Extensive manufactories had been established to supply 
the place of the British goods cut off by the blockade. 
This branch of industry continued to thrive after peace, 
though for a time depressed by the quantity of British 
goods thrown on the market. The immediate evils of the 
war were apparent: trade ruined, commerce gone, no specie 
to be seen," and a general depression. Yet the wonderful 
resources of the country were shown by the rapidity with 
which it entered upon a new career of prosperity. 

New States. — The war also had another effect: during 
the hard times which followed it, many people left their 
old homes and moved to the West. The population of 
Ohio and Louisiana (p. 244) was nearly doubled. During 
six years (1816-21), a new State was added to the Union 
each year, beginning with Indiana (p. 245). 

Political Parties. — When Madison's term of office ex- 
pired, the Federal party had been broken up by its 
opposition to the war. eTames Monroe, the presidential 

1 The Algrerines had taken advantage of the. war with Great Britain to renew their 
depredations on Auicricau commerce. Decatur (1815) was sent with a squadron to 
Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli. He obtained the liberation of the American prisoners, 
and full indemnity for all losses, with pledges for the futin-e. The United States was 
the first nation efiFectiially to resist the demands of the Barliary pirates for tribute. 

2 Instead of gold and silver money there were in circulation many banknotes. The 
national bank chartered by Congress (p. 171) had ceased to exist in ISll, and the banks 
at this time were all State banks; that is, each was chartered by some State. But 
people often refused to accept the notes issued by banks in distant States ; for if a 
bank should fail its notes would be worthless. To provide banknotes that would cir- 
culate everywhere freely, Congress now chartered, for twenty years, a second national 
Ijank at Philadelphia, with jiower to establish branches at other places. 



196 MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION [1S17 

candidate of the Republican party, was elected by a large 
majority. Four years later he was reelected, almost 
unanimously. 

MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION (1817-1825)1 

Monroe's administration is known as " the era of good 
feeling." After the ravages of war the attention of all 
was turned to the development of the internal resources 
of the country and to the building up of its industries. 

Domestic Affairs. — New States admitted — Mississippi, 
Illinois, Alabama, Maine, and Missouri (p. 245).- 

The Missouri Compromise. — "When the admission of 
Missouri as a State was proposed, a violent discussion 
arose as to whether slavery should be allowed there.^ At 

1 James Monroo wa8 born 1758 ; fliod 1831. As a soldier under General Wasbinjrton, 
he distinguished himself iu the battles of Brandywine, Gerniantown, and Moniuouth. 
Afterwards, ho studied law, and entered politieal life. Having been sent by Washing- 
ton as minister to France, he showed such marked sympathy with that country as to 
displease the President and his cabinet, who were just eoneluding a treaty with Great 
Britain, and wished to preserve a strictly neutral jtolicy; he was therefore recalled. 
Under Jeflferson, who was his warm friend, he was again sent to France (1803), when 
he secured the purchase of Louisiana. He is said always to have taken particular 
pride in this transaction. Soon after his inauguration as President, he visited all the 
military posts in tlie North and East, with a view to a thorough acquaintance with the 
capabilities of the country iii the event of future hostilities. Monroe was a uum more 
prudent than brilliant, who acted with a single eye to the welfare of his eountrj-. 
Jefferson said of him : " If his soul were turned inside out, not a spot would be found 
on it." Like that loved friend, he died " poor in money, but rich in honor" ; and like 
him also, he passed away on tlie anniiversary of our country's indepeiuleuce. 

2 The flag originally adopted by the Continental Congress had thirteen stars and 
thirteen stripes. After the admission of Vermont and Kentmky the number both of 
stars and of stripes was changed to fifteen. No further change was made for many 
years, and in the "War of 1812 our armies fought under the flag of fifteen stars and 
fifteen stripes, though the number of .'^tates was then eighteen. In 1818, however, after 
the admission of several more new States, the number of stripes was restored to thir- 
teen, and since then the number of stars has been the same as the number of States. 

3 The question of slavery was already one of vast importance. At first slaves were 
owned in the Northern as well as the Southern States. But in the North slave labor 
was unprofitable, and it had gradually died out; while in the South it was suc<-essful, 
and hence had steadily increased. Whitney's cotton gin had given a great impulse to 
cotton raising. Sugar and tobacco, as well as cotton, were cultivated by slave labor. 



1820] 



DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 



197 



this time the Union consisted of twenty-two States, of 
which half — those north of the Ohio River and Mason and 
Dixon's Line — were free, and the other half were slave- 
holding. For many years such a l)alance in number of 
States, and hence in the United States Senate, was care- 
fully maintained. Missouri was at last admitted (1821) as 
a slave State, under the Compromise of 1820,^ providing 
that slaver}^ should be forever prohibited in all the rest of 
the Louisiana purchase north of the parallel 36° 30', the 
southern boundary of Missouri. At about the same time 
Maine was admitted as a free State. 




LAFAYETTE VISITS THE UNITED STATES. 



Lafajiette's Visit to this country (1824-25) as " the na- 
tion's guest" was a joyous event. He traveled through 

1 This Missouri Couiprouiise was ably supported (but not proposed) by Henry Clay. 



'^ 


H / 


J |J^ 


t 


l) /^ ^\ '^ 


\) 




\j-S^ 


''^ws. 




"1 


^Qf\ 


^ ^ 






JLf ^W y — ^ 


v^L. 




1 


^m^ 


^^LJZ 


hI^2~A 






200 MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION [1824 

eac'li of tJio twenty-four States, iuu\ was everywiiere wel- 
eouied with delight. His visit to the toinl) of Washington 
was full of affectionate remembrance. He was carried 
homo in a national vessel, the Brandy wine, named in 
honor of the battle in which Lafayette first drew his 
sword in belialf of the colonies. 

Foreign Affairs. — (rreat Britain. — When Louisiana was 
pm'chased by us it had no definite boundary on the north. 
Now, by treaty with Gi-eat Britain (1818), the i)arallel of 
49° north latitude was agreed upon as the boundary, as 
far as the Rocky Mountains (pp. 179, 198). Beyond those 
mountains, all lands claimed by either country were to be 
open temporarily to citizens of both nations. 

Florida. — By a treaty (1819) Spcun ceded Florida to 
the United States, and the United States agreed to pay 
$5,000,000 worth of claims held by Americans against 
Spain. The same treaty also fixed our southwestern 
boundary as shown in the map on pages 198, 199. Thus 
Texas, which was in dispute, was given to Si)ain. 

Monroe Doctrine. — In a message to Congri»ss, President 
Moni-oe advocated a principle since famous as the Monroe 
Doctrine.' He declared that any attempt by a European 
nation to gain domini<)n in America would be considered 
by the United States as an unfriendly act. 

Political Parties. — Practically all the people now be- 
longed to the great Democratic-Republican party, which 
had twice so triumphantly elected Monroe. In the ab- 

I At this time the South American colonies of Spain bad just succeoiled in establisli- 
Ing their iiulopendence, as tlie United States had before made its«'If independent of 
Great Britain. Their existence as nations had been recoguized by the United States, 
but not by the froveruments of Europe. Spain asked several other countries in 
Europe to aid lier in rcconcjnering her lost colonies, and the.v seemed likely to do so. 
But (ireat Britain was opposed to such action; she proposed that the United States 
join her In warning the European countries to let South America alone. President 
Monroe preferred, however, to make hia protest separately and in general terms. 



1824] POLITICAL PARTIES 201 

sence of any party national convention, however, there 
were on election day (1824) four different candidates for 
President/ No one obtaining a majority of the electoral 
votes," the election went to the House of Representatives, 
where John Quincy Adams, son of John Adams, was chosen. 

COLLATERAL READINGS 

Missouri Coinitromise. — Scliouler's History of the United Stales, vol. iii. pp. 165-167 
(Northeru view); Stephens's War Between the Slates, vol. ii. pp. 135-164 (Southern view). 

Monroe Doctrine Schouler's History of the United States, vol. Iii. pp. 278, 281-293. 

Lafayette's Visit.— Schouler, vol. iii. pp. 316-324. 



JOHN QUINCY ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION (1825-1829)3 

Domestic Affairs. — This was a period of great national 
prosperity. The debt was diminishing at the rate of over 
$6,000,000 a year. A protective tariff, known as the 
"American System," was greatly increased (1828). It 

' Begiuuing with this division of the party among diflferent leaders, the people soon 
came to he grouped under two diflferent party names. The National Republicans — 
later knosvn as Whigs — acknowledged the leadership of J. Q. Adams and Henry Clay; 
with them were joined many who had formerly been Federalists. The main body of 
Republicans — henceforth known as Democrats — were led by Andrew Jackson, William 
H. Crawford, and John C. Calhoun (kal hoon). The Whigs favored a j}rotective tariff, 
for the purpose of encouraging home manufactures, and a general system of internal 
improrements by the federal government, such as improving the navigation of rivers, 
the buikling of canals and roads, and the dredging of harbors. Most of the Democrats, 
as strict constructionists, opposed these measures. 

For a time after 1835 the Democrats were also called " Locofocos," because, at a 
meeting in Tammany Hall, New York (October 29), the lights, having been put out, 
were relighted with locofoco matches, which several persons, expecting such an event, 
had carried in their pockets. Matches had been invented only a short time before; 
hence their use in this case attracted much attention. 

2 Jackson received 99, Adams 84, Crawford 41, and Clay 37. 

3 John Quincy Adams was born in Massachusetts, 1767 ; died 1848. He was a man 
of learning, blameless reputation, and unquestioned patriotism, yet as President he 
■was hardly more successful than his father. This was doubtless owing greatly to 
the fierce opposition which assailed him from the friends of disappointed candidates, 
who at once combined to weaken his measures and prevent his reelection. Their 
candidate was Andrew Jackson, a man whose dashing boldness, energy, and decision 
attracted the common people and hid the more quiet virtues of Adams. To add to 
his perplexities, a majority of the House and nearly oue half of the Senate favored 



202 



JOHN QUINCY ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION 



L1825 



was popular iii the East, but distasteful to the South/ 
During this term the Erie Canal was opened (1825), and 
the first railroad in the United States was completed 

(1826). The Erie 




TIIK ERIE CANAL. 



Canal was built by 
the State of New 
York, under the 
leadership of Gov- 
ernor De Witt 
Clinton. It greatly 
lessened the cost 
of transporting 
goods to and from 
the West, and 
helped to make 
New York city the 
largest and most prosperous seaport on the Atlantic coast. 
The buildingof canals and railroads marks a great change 
in our industrial history. At this time, and for many 
years thereafter, the usual means of travel on land was 
by stagecoach, and freight was carried mostly by water. 
The cost of carrying freight long distances on land, over 
ordinary roads, was often more than the freight was worth. 

the Jackson party, the Vice President, John C. Calhoun, beinRmost active in the op- 
position. To stem such a title was a hopeless effort. Two years after the expiration 
of his term as President, Adams was returned to Couftress, where he remained until 
his deatli, over sixteen years afterwards. Ten years of iiublic service were thus ren- 
dered after he had passed his "tlireescore years and ten," and so great was his ability 
in debate at tliis extreme ape, that he was called "theold man eloquent." Lilic his 
father, ho was a wonderful worker, and his uiind was a storehouse of facts. lie lived 
economically, and left a large estate. IIo was the congressional advocate of auti- 
slaverj' principles, and a bitter opponent of secret societies. His fauie increased 
■with his age, and lie died a trusted and revered diauipioii of popular rights. He was 
seized with apoplexy while occupying his seat in Congress, after which he liugered two 
days in partial unconsciousness. 

' The Southern States, devoted to agricultural pursuits, desired to have foreign 
gof)ds lirought to them as cheaply as possible ; while the Eastern States, engaged in 
manufactures, wished to have foreign competition shut off by heavy duties, 



1828] 



DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 



203 



Canals and railroads, as they steadily increased, not only 
made farming profitable in vast areas remote from navi- 
gable waters, but also gave a great impetus to manufac- 
tures for the growing home markets. 

Political Parties. — Adams was a candidate for reelection, 
but Andrew Jackson — the hero of New Orleans, and 




STAGECOACH. 



the Democratic nominee — was chosen. The principle 
of a protective tariff was thus rejected by the people. 



JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION (1829-1837)1 

President Jackson began his administration with an 
inflexible honesty that delighted all, and with a sturdiness 
of purpose that amazed both friends and foes. In the 

1 Andrew Jackson -was born 1767 ; died 1845. He was of Scotch-Irish descent. His 
father died before Andrew was born, leaving his mother very poor. As a boy Andrew 
was brave and inipetnons, passionately fond of athletic sports, but not at all devoted 
to books. His life was crowded with excitement and adventure. At thirteen, being 
captured by the British, he was ordered to clean the commander's boots. Showing 
the true American spirit in his refusal, he was sent to prison with a wound on head 
and arm. Here he contracted the smallpox, which kept him ill several months. His 



1832] 



DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 



205 



government offices he surrounded himself at once with 
his political friends, thus establishing the principle of 
" rotation in office." ' 

Domestic Affairs. — NuUification (1832). — South Caro- 
lina passed a Nullification 
ordinance declaring the 
tariff law "null and void," 
and that the State would 
secede from the Union if 
force should be employed 
to collect any revenue at 
Charleston. President 
Jackson acted with his 
accustomed promptness. 
He issued a proclamation 
announcing his determi- 
nation to execute the 
laws, and ordered troops, 
under General Scott, to 
proceed to Charleston.^ 




JOHN C. CALHOUN. 



mother eflfected his exchange, but soon afterwards she died of ship fever -while caring 
for the imprisoned Americans at Charleston. Left destitute, young Jackson tried 
various employments, but Anally settled down to the law, removed to Tennessee, and 
in 1796 was elected to Congress. His imperious temper and inflexible will supplied 
him with frequent quarrels. He first distinguished himself as a military officer in the 
war against the Creek Indians. His dashing successes in the War of 1812 completed his 
reputation and ultimately won him the presidency. His nomination was at first 
received in many States with ridicule, as, whatever might be his military prowess, 
neither his temper nor his ability recommended him as a statesman. His reelection, 
however, proved his popular success as President. His chief intellectual gifts were 
energy and intuitive judgment. He was thoroughly houest. intensely warm-hearted, 
and had an instinctive horror of debt. His moral courage was as great as his physical, 
and his patriotism was undoubted. He died at the " Hermitage," his home near Nash- 
ville, Tennessee. 

1 "During the first year of his administration there were nearly seven hundred 
removals from office, not including subordinate clerks. During the forty years pre- 
ceding there had been but seventy-four." 

2 John C. Calhoun and Robert Y. Hayne were the prominent advocates of the 
doctrine of " State rights," declaring that a State could set aside an act of Congress 



206 JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION [1833 

In the meantime Henry Clay's celebrated Compromise Bill 
was adopted by the Senate. This measui-e, offering a 
gradual reduction of the tariff, was accepted by both 
sides, and quiet was restored/ 

Bank of the United States. — During his first term Jack- 
son vetoed a bill renewing the charter of the United States 
Bank. After his reelection - by an overwhelming ma- 
joi'ity, considering his policy sustained by the people, he 
ordered (1833) the public money to be removed from its 
vaults. Jackson's measure excited violent clamor, but he 
was sustained l)y the Democratic majority in the House 
of Representatives. The money was gi-adually withdrawn 
from the United States Bank to pay the expenses of the 
government, and no new deposits were made there. 

Speculation. — When the public money, which was with- 
held from the Bank of the United States, was deposited 
in the local State banks, it became easy to borrow money, 

wliich it depmed unconstitutional. During this striifrKlo occurred the memorable 
debate in the Senate between Webster and Hayne, in which Webster, opposinji seces- 
sion, prouounced tliose words familiar to every schoolboy, " Libertj' and Union, now 
and forever, one and inseparable." Calhoun's public life extended over forty years. 
He was one of tlie most celebrated statesmen of his time. As a speaker he was noted 
for forcible logic, clear demon.«tration, and earnest manner. He rejected ornament, 
and rarely used illustration. Webster, his political antagonist, said of liim:"nehad 
the iiuUsputal)lo basis of all higli character — unspotted integrity and honor unim- 
pcached. Nothing groveling, low, or meanly selfish came near his head or his heart." 

' Alexander II. Stephens says: "To do this. Clay had to break from his old political 
friends, while he was offering up the darling system of his heart on the altar of his 
country. No one can deny that ho was a patriot, every inch of him. When he was 
importuned not to take the course he did, and assured that it would lessen his chances 
for the presidency, he nobly replied, 'I would rather be right than be President' — 
a sentiment worthy to be tlie nu)tto of every young patriot in our land." 

-' The election of 1832 is notable as being the first in which candidates for Presi- 
dent and Vice President were nominated by national conventions of the respective 
parties. Before this time nominations had lieeji made sometimes by State legislatures, 
sometimes by a "congressional caucus"— composed of the crmgrcssmen belonging to 
the party. The first national convention was held by the Antimasonic party, which 
cut a prominent figure in New York and the neighboring States for several years. It 
opposed the election of any freemason to public oftlce, claiming that masons considered 
duty to the order superior to duty to their country. 



1833] DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 207 

for the banks now issued vast amounts of their own bank- 
notes. Speculation extended to every branch of trade, 
but especially to Western lands. New cities were laid out 
in the wilderness. Fabulous prices were chai'ged for 
building lots which existed only on paper. Scarcely a 
man could be found who had not his pet project for 
realizing a fortune. The bitter fruits of these hothouse 
schemes were gathered in Van Buren's time. 

Indian Troubles. — Owing to the pressure of white set- 
tlers in the middle West, one Indian tribe after another 
had been persuaded or compelled to sell its lands and 
move west of the Mississippi. This policy of dealing 
with all the Indians east of the river was advised by Pres- 
ident Monroe, and was followed by Adams and Jackson. 
Most of them were removed peaceably, or with only threats 
of war ; but in two cases the removal caused bloodshed. 
(1) The Black Hawk AVak broke out in the region near 
the Mississippi, in northern Illinois and what is now Wis- 
consin (1832). The Sacs and Foxes had some time before 
sold their lands to the United States, but when the settlers 
came to take possession, the Indians refused to leave. 
After some skirmishes they were driven off, and their 
leader, the famous Black Hawk, was captured. (2) The 
Florida War (1835) with the Sem'inoles grew out of an 
attempt to remove them to their new homes west of the 
Mississippi, in accordance with a treaty.^ After several 
battles the Indians retreated to the Everglades of southern 

1 Osceola, tlie chief of the 8eininoles, was so defiant that General Thompson, the 
government agent, put him in irons. Dissembling his wrath, Osceola consented to 
the treaty. But no sooner was he released than, burning with indignation, he plotted 
a general massacre of the whites. General Thomjison was shot and scali)ed while 
sitting at dinner, under the very guns of Fort King. The same day Major Dade, with 
over 100 men, was waylaid near the Wa'hoo Swamp. All but four were killed, and 
these subsequently died of their wounds. Osceola, iu October, 1837, visited the camp 
of General Jessup under a flag of truce. He was there seized .and sent to Fort 
Moultrie, where he died the following year. 



208 VAN BUKEN'S ADMINISTKATION [1837 

Florida, where they hoped to find a safe retreat in the 
tangled swamps. They were, however, pursued into their 
hiding places by Colonel Taylor, and beaten in a hard- 
fought battle (Okecho'bee, December 25, 1837), but were 
not fully subdued until 1S42. 

New States. — Two States were admitted in this admin- 
istration — Arkansas and Michigan (pp. 245, 246). 

Foreign Affairs. — France. — The French government had 
promised to pay $5,000,000 for damages to our commerce 
during Napoleon's wars. This agreement not being kept, 
Jackson urged Congress to make reprisals on French 
ships. The mediation of Grreat Britain secured the pay- 
ment of the debt by France and thus averted the threat- 
ened war. 

Political Parties. — The Democratic candidate, Martin 
Van Bu'ren, was chosen President.' The people thus 
supported the policy of Jackson — no United States Bank 
and no protective tariff. General Harrison was the Whig 
candidate. 



VAN BUREN'S ADMINISTRATION (1837-1841)- 

Domestic Affairs. — Crisis o/1837. — The financial storm 
which had been gathering through the preceding ad- 

1 No candidate for Vice President received a majority of the electoral votes, so the 
election went to the Senate. Colonel R. M. Johnson was chosen. 

'■' Martin Van Buren was born 1782; died 1HC2. Ue early took an interest in politics, 
and in 1818 started a new organization of the Democratic party of New York, his 
native State, which had the power for over twenty years. In 1831 he was appointed 
minister to Great Britain, wliither ho went in September; but when the nomination 
came before the Senate in December, it was rejected, on the ground that he had sided 
with Great Britain asaiust the United States on certain matters, and ha<l carried 
party contests and their results into forei^rn negotiations. Tlis party regarded this as 
extreme political persecution, and the next year elected him to the vice-presidency. 
He thus became the liead of the Senate which a few months before had condemned liiin, 
and where he now performed his duties with "dignity, courtesy, and impartiality." 
As President, Van Buren wa.s the subject of much partisan censure. The country 



1887J DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 209 

ministration now burst with terrible fury. The banks 
contracted their circulation and called in their loans.' 
Business men could not pay their debts. Failures were 
everyday occurrences, and the losses in New York city 
alone, during March and April, exceeded $100,000,000. 
Property of all kinds declined in value. Eight of the 
States failed, wholly or in part, fo meet their financial 
obligations. Even the United States government could 
not pay its debts when due. Consternation seized upon all 
classes. Confidence was destroyed and trade stood still. 

TJie Siihtreasury Bill. — Van Buren's favorite plan was 
to keep the public money in the United States treasury at 
Washington, and in subtreasuries at a few other cities. 
The Subtreasury Bill, however, was enacted only at the 
close of his term. It was repealed during Tyler's admin- 
istration, but reenacted under Polk, and is the system in 
force at the present time. 

Foreign Affairs.— T/^e Canadian ''Patriot War'' (1837- 
1838). — A Canadian rebellion against G-reat Britain, at 
this time, stirred the sympathies of the American people. 
Meetings were held, volunteers offered, and arms con- 
tributed. The President issued a proclamation refusing 

was passing through a peculiar crisis, aud his was a difficult position to fill with satis- 
faction to all. That he pleased his own party is proved from the fact of his reuomi- 
nation in 1840 against Harrison. In 1848 he became the presidential candidate of the 
Free-soil party, a new party advocating antislavery princiitles. After this he retired 
to his estate in Kiuderhooli, N. Y., where he died. 

• The direct causes of this were as follows: (1) Jackson issued the "specie circu- 
lar" near the close of his last term, directing that payments for public lands should 
be made in specie (gold and silver). The specie was soon gathered into the United 
States treasury. (2) Congress ordered that the surplus public money, amounting to 
about $28,000,000, should be withdrawn from the local banks and distributed among 
the States. The banks could not meet the demand. (3) During the season of high 
prices and speculation, when fortunes were easily made, there had been heavy impor- 
tations of European goods, which had to be paid for in gold and silver. Thus the 
country was drained of its specie. (4) A terrible fire in the city of New York on the 
night of December 16, 1835, burned 600 valuable stores and property to the amount of 
$20,000,000. 

B. HIgT. U. S. — 13 



210 IIAKKISON AND TYLER'S ADMINISTRATION [1841 

the protection of the United States goverimieut to any 
who should aid the Canadians, and sent General Scott to 
the frontier to preserve the peace." 

Political Parties. — The financial difficulties caused a 
change in political feeling and for a time weakened the 
confidence of the people in the wisdom of the Democratic 
policy. Van Bui'en was nominated by the Democrats for 
a second term ; but General Harrison, the hero of Tippe- 
canoe, the Whig nominee, was chosen President by an 
immense majority. 

COLLATERAL READING 

The (Crisis of 1837. — ycliouler's Uistory of the I'nited Slates, vol. iv. pp. 257-264, 
276-281. 

HARRISON AND TYLER'S ADMINISTRATION (1841-1845) - 

General Harrison had scarcely entered upon the duties 
of his office, and selected his cabinet, when he died. John 

• A body of Americans, having taken possession of Navy Island, in Niagara River, 
had hired a steamer called the Caroline to convey provisions and war materials for 
an expedition to Canada. On the uiglit of December 2',», 1837, a party of British troops 
attempted to seize this vessel. A desperate fight ensued; but the ship was at last 
set on fire and left to drift over Niagara Falls. This event caused great excitement at 
the time. 

-William Henry Harrison was born 1773; died 1841. He distinguished himself 
during the War of 1812, especially in the battle of the Thames. His military reputa- 
tion made him available as a presidential candidate. His cliaraeter was unimpeach- 
able, and the chief slur cast upon him by his opponents was that be had live<l in a " log 
cabin," with nothing to drink but "hard cider." His friends turned this to good 
account. The campaign was noted for immense mass meetings, long processions, 
song-singing, and great enthusiasm. "Hard cider" became a party watchword, and 
the " log cabin " a regular feature in the popular parades. Harrison was elected by a 
large majority, and great hopes were entertained of his administration. Though ad- 
van(;ctl in years, he gave promise of endurance. But " he was beset by otficeseekers ; 
he was anxious to gratify the numerous friends and supporters who flocked about 
him ; he gave himself incessantly to pul)lic business; and at the close of the month he 
was on a sick bed." The illness soon proved to be fatal. 

.Tolin Tyler was born 1790; died 1862. He was in early life a great admirer of 
Henry Clay, and is .said to have wept with sorrow when the AVliigs in convention 
rejected his favorite candidate for the presidency and selected Harrison. Ho was 



1841] DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 211 

Tyler, the Vice President, in accordance with the Consti- 
tution of the United States, became President. This was 
the first case of the kind in our history. Tyler was elected 
as a Whig, but did not carry out the favorite measures of 
his party. 

Domestic Affairs. — United States Bank. — Under the 
lead of Clay, the Whig majority in Congress passed a 
charter' for a " Bank of the United States." This Tyler 
vetoed. A second bill, for a similar purpose, met the 
same fate. These successive vetoes caused great anger 
and excitement among the Whigs. 

Borfs BebelUon, a local disturbance in Rhode Island, 
grew out of efforts to secure a more liberal constitution in 
that State. The charter granted by Charles II. was still 
in force. It limited the "right of suffrage to those holding 
a certain amount of property, and fixed very unequally 
the number of deputies in the Assembly from the different 
towns. In ISil a new State constitution was adoj^ted, 
the vote being taken in mass CDnventions, and not by the 
legal voters according to the charter. Under this consti- 
tution T. W. Dorr was elected governor. The old gov- 
ernment still went on, treating his election as illegal. He 
attempted to seize the State arsenal, but, finding it held 
by the militia, gave up the attempt. Dorr was afterwards 
arrested, convicted of treason, and sentenced to imprison- 
ment for life, but was finally pardoned. Meanwhile, a 

nominated Vice President by a unanimous vote, and was a favorite witb liia party. 
In tbe popular refrain " Tippecanoe and Tyler too " the people sang praises to him as 
heartily as to Harrison himself. Tyler's administration 'was fiiU of quarrel. Clay was 
determined to reduce the President to the ranks; Tyler answered with vetoes. The 
"^Tiigs denounced him as a renegade, to which he replied, with truth, that he had never 
indorsed their measures, either before or during the presidential canvass. In 1861 he 
became the presiding officer of the peace convention in Washington. All efTorts at 
reconciliation proving futile, he renounced his allegiance to the United States, and 
followed the Confederate fortunes. He died in Richmond, where he was in attendance 
as a member of the Confederate Congress. 



212 



HARRISON AND TYLER'S ADMINISTRATION 



[1S43 



liberal constitution, whieh had been legally adopted, went 
into operation (1843). 

New York Anti-Rent Difficulties (1844). — The tenants on 
some of the old " patroon estates " in New York refused 
to pay the rent. It was very light,' but was considered 
illegal. The anti-renters, as they were called, assumed 
the disguise of Indians, tarred and feathered those tenants 
who paid their rents, and even killed oflScers who served 
warrants upon them. The disturbances were suppressed 

only by a military f(>rce(1846). 
The Magnetic Tclefjraph 
was invented by Samuel F. 
B. Morse. The first line was 
built between Baltimore and 
Washington (1844), with 
$30,000 appropriated by Con- 
gress. On its completion, 
the first official message sent 
was, "What hath God 
wrought!" The introduction 
of the telegraph was the great- 
est event of this adminis- 
tration. 

The Mormons. — A religious 
sect called Mormons had 
settled at Nauvoo', 111. (1840). Here they built a city of 
several thousand inhabitants, and laid the foundation of a 
costly temple. Having incurred the enmity of the people 
about them, their leader, Joseph Smith, was killed by a 
mob (1844).- The next year the State government re- 

1 The reut consisted of only "a few bushels of wheat, three or four fat fowls, and a 
day's work with horses and wagon, per year." 

2 Joseph Smith, wliile living at Palmyra, N. Y., claimed to hare had a revelation 
by which he was directed to a spot where he found buried a series of golden plates 




MORSE AND HIS TELEGRAPH. 



1846] 



FOREIGN AFFAIRS 



213 



pealed the charter of the city, which was then partly 
abandoned. Finally, the city was bombarded for three 
days, when the remaining inhabitants also agreed to leave. 
The Mormons went to Iowa (1846), and then to Utah. 

New State admitted — Flori- 
da (p. 246). 

Foreign Affairs. — The North- 
east Boundary, l)etween Maine 
and New Brunswick, had never 
been settled. The people of 
that region at one time threat- 
ened to take up arms to sup- 
port their respective claims, 
and there was great peril of a 
war with Great Britain. At 
last the difficulty was adjusted 
by what is known as the Ash'- 
burton treaty (1842), which was 
negotiated between the United 
States and Great Britain, Dan- 
iel Webster and Lord Ash bur- 
ton acting as commissioners. 




SCALE OF MILES 



THE NORTH EAST BOUNDARY. 



covered ■with inscriptions, ■which he translated by means of two transparent stones 
found ■with them. The result was the Book of Mormon, said to be the history of a race 
favored by God which occupied this continent at a remote period of antiquity. The 
Mormons accept the Holy Bible as received by all Christian people, but believe the 
Book of Mormon to be an additional revelation, and also that their chief or prophet 
receives direct inspiration from God. Smith gained only a fe w converts at first. In 
1831 they removed to Ohio, and a few years later to western Missouri. Here they in- 
creased rapidly in numbers and wealth, but they were sOon driven out of the State, 
and went to niinois. From about 1850, or earlier, until 1890 they practiced plural 
marriage, or polygamy, claiming that the Scriptures justify it. After the death of 
Smith and their expulsion from Nauvoo, a company iinder the leadership of Brigham 
Young crossed the Rocky Mountains, and settled near Great Salt Lake, in Utah. They 
were followed by others of their sect, and, after great sufferings, succeeded in estab- 
lishing a prosperous colony. They founded Salt Lake City, where they erected a large 
temple for worship. Their prophet Brigham Young, who died August 19, 1877, is 
remembered by his followers with the greatest reverence. 



214 



HARRISON AND TYLER'S ADMINISTRATION 



[1844 



Annexation of Texas. — The Texans, under General Sam 
Houston (hu'ston), having won their independence from 
Mexico (p. 246), applied (li'^W) for a<lmission to the Union. 
Their petition Avas at first rejected by Congress,' but, 

being indorsed by the 
people in the fall elec- 
tions, was granted the 
day before the close of 
Tyler's administration. 
Political Parties. — 
The question of the an- 
nexation of Texas went 
before the people for 
their decision. The 
Whigs, who opposed its 
admission, nominated 
Henry Clay ^ for Presi- 
dent. The Democrats, 
who favored its admis- 
sion, named James K. 
Polk, who, after a close 
'^^^^^- contest, was elected. 

' There wero two reasons wliy this measure was warmly disenssed. (1) Mexico 
claimed Texas, although that country had maintained its indcpendenec for nine years, 
and had been recognized by several European nations, as well as by the United States. 
Besides, Texas claimed to the Rio Grande (re'o giiin d:"i), while Mexico insisted upon the 
Nueces (nwa 86s) River as the boundary line between Texas and Mexico. The section 
of country between these rivers was therefore disputed terrltorj', and the annexation 
of Texas would bring on a war with Mexico. (2) The Texans held slaves. Consequently, 
while the South urged the admission of Texas, the North as strongly opposed it. 

■■! Henry Clay was a man whom the nation loved but signally failed to honor. Yet 
his fame and reputation remain far above any distinction which mere oflice can give, 
and unite with them an affection which stands the test of time. Respected by 
his opi)ouents, he was almost idolized by his friends. In this he somewhat resembled 
Jefferson, but, unlike him, he had not in his early years the advantages of a liberal 
education. His father, a Baptist minister of very limited means, died when Henry 
was five years old, and at fifteen he was left to support himself. Meantime, he had 
received what little tuition he had, in a log cabin schoollmusc, fr(un very indifferent 
teachers. With a rare tact for making friends, ready talent waiting to bo instructed, 




SCALE OF MfttS 

5 IJo 5i5o ijSo 53o 



.. %f^Gulf of 
\ U Mexico 



1846] 



WAR WITH MEXICO 



215 



JAMES K. POLK'S ADMINISTRATION (1845-1849)1 
WAR WITH MEXICO (1846-1847) 

Taylor's Army. — Campaign on the Rio Grande. — General 
Zachary Taylor, having been ordered with his "troops into 
the disputed territory, met and defeated (May <S, 1846) 
a Mexican army at Palo Alto (pah'lo ahl'to). The next 
day he met the same army at Resaca de la Palma (ra- 
sah'kah da lah pahl'mah), and drove it across the Rio 

and a strong determination seeking opportunities, he soon began to show the dawn- 
iugsof the power which afterwards distinguished him. He said : " I owe my success in 
life to a single fact, namely, that at an early age I commenced, and continued for some 
years, the practice of daily reading and 
speaking the contents of some histori- 
cal or scientific book. These offhand ef- 
forts were sometimes made in a corn- 
flcld; at others, in the forest; and not 
unfrequently in some distant barn, 
with the horse and ox for my only au- 
ditors. It is to this that I am indebted 
for the impulses that have shaped and 
molded my entire destiny." Rising 
rapidly by the force of his genius, he 
soon made himself felt in his State 
and in the nation. He was peculiarly 
winning in his manners. An eminent 
and stem political antagonist once re- 
fused an introduction to him expressly 
on the ground of a determination not 
to be magnetized by personal contact, 
as he " had known other good haters" 
of Clay to be. United with this suavity 
was a wonderful will and an inflexible 
honor. His political adversary but per- 
sonal admirer, John C. Breckinridge, 
in an oration pronounced at his death, 
uttered these words: "If I were to 

write his epitaph, I would inscribe as the highest eulogy on the stone which shall mark 
his resting place : ' Here lies a man who was in the public service for fifty years, and 
never attempted to deceive his countrymen.' " 

' James K. Polk was born 1795 ; died 1849. He was a conspicuous opposer of the 
administration of John Quincy Adams, and a warm supporter of Jackson. In 1839, 
having served fourteen years in Congress, he declined a reelection, and was chosen 
governor of Tennessee. His presidential nomination, in couuection with that of 




HENRY CLAT. 



21G 



POLE'S AUMINISTKATIOX 



[1846 



Grande in utter rout. When news of these encounters 
reached Washington, Congress declared war. 

Capture oj Monterey (September 24). — General Taylor, 
with about 6000 men, advanced upon Monterey (mon- 

ta ra). This city 
was strongly forti- 
fied, and its streets 
were barricaded 
and defended by a 
garrison of 10,000 
men. To avoid the 
deadly fire from the 
windows, roofs, and 
barricades, the as- 
saulting troops en- 
tered the build- 
ings and dug their 
way through the 
stone walls from 
house to house, or 
passed from roof to roof. They came at last within one 
square of the Grand Plaza, when the city was surrendered. 
The garrison w^as allowed to march out with the honors 
of war. 

Battle ofBuena Vista (February 23, 1847). — Santa Anna, 
the Mexican general, learning that the flower of Taylor's 
command had been withdrawn to aid General Scott (p. 218), 




GENERAI^ TAYLOR'S CAMPAIGN. 



George M. Dallasi of Pcunsylvauia as Vice President, had the effeet of uniting the 
Demo<ratic jtaity. which had bi-en disturlied by dissensions between tlie friends and 
opponents of Martin Van Buren. The Mcxi<an war, whioli was stronfrly opposed in 
many Htatca, the euactnient of a tariff based on a rcvenne principle instead of a pro- 
tective one, and the agitation caused by the Wilinot Proviso (p. 221), conspired to 
affect his popularity before the end of his term. He had, liowever. pre-viously pledged 
himself not to be a candidate for reelection. He died about three months after his 
retirement from office. 



1847J WAR WITH MEXICO 217 

determined to crush the remainder. The little American 
army took post near Buena Vista (bwa'nah vees'tah), on a 
mountain pass and a plateau with hills on one side and 
ravines on the other/ Here it was attacked by Santa 
Anna with 20,000 of the best troops of Mexico. The battle 
lasted from early morning till dark. Again and again 
the Mexicans seemed on the point of overwhelming the 
Americans by force of numbers; but Taylor skillfully 
sent reenforcements where they were needed. The 
American artillery wrought such havoc in the crowded 
masses of the enemy that they finally broke and fled in 
disorder. 

General Taylor's work was now done. His army was 
intended only to hold the country already gained, while 
General Scott penetrated to the capital from Vera Cruz 
(va'rah kroos). 

Kearny's Army. — General Stephen W. Kearny (kar'ny) 
was directed to take the Mexican provinces of New Mex- 
ico and California. Starting from Fort Leavenworth 
(June, 1846), after a journey of 1000 miles he reached 
Santa Fe (map, p. 218). Unfurling there the United States 
flag, he continued his march toward California.^ On his 
way, however, he learned from Kit Carson, the noted 

' 1 Several anecdotes are told of General Taylor in connection with this battle. The 
day before the principal attack, the Mexicans fired heavily on our line. A Mexican 
officer, coining with a message from Santa Anna, found Taylor sitting on his white 
horse, with one leg over the pommel of his saddle. The officer .asked him what he was 
waiting for. He answered: "For Santa Anna to surrender." After the officer's 
return a battery opened on Taylor's position, but he remained coolly surveying the 
enemy with his spyglass. Some one suggesting that " Whitey " was too conspicuous 
a horse for the battle, he replied that the " old fellow had missed the fun at Monterey, 
and he should have his share this time." 

-' Colonel Doniphan, with 1000 men, the main body of General Kearny's command, 
marched over lOoo miles through a hostile country, from Santa F6 to Saltillo, having 
on tbe way fought two battles and conquered the province and city of Chihuahua 
(che waw'waw). At the end of their term of service he led his men back to New 
Orleans and discharged them. They had been enlisted, marched 5000 miles, and dis- 
banded^ all in a year. 



218 



POLK'S ADMINISTRATION 



[1846 



hunter, tliat he was late. The winter before, Captain 
John C. Fremont, with a company of sixty men, had been 
engaged in surveying a new route to Oregon. Hearing 
that the Mexican commandant intended to expel the 
American settlers, he went to their rescue, although he 
was not aware that war bad broken out between the United 




GKNKRAL KEARXY'8 CAMPAIGN. 



States and Mexico. With greatly inferior numbers he 
was victor over the Mexicans in every conflict. By the 
help of Commodores Sloat and Stockton, and also of Gen- 
eral Kearny, who came in ti'iie to aid in the last battle, 
the entire country was conquered. 

Scott's Army. — Capture of Vera Cruz (March 29, 
1847).— General Winfield Scott landed an army 12,000 
sti'ong without opposition, and forthwith drew his siege 
lines among the shifting sand hills and chaparral thickets 



1847] WAR WITH MEXICO 219 

about Vera Cruz. After a fierce bombardment of four 
days the city was surrendered. 

M((rcli to Mexico. — In about a week, the army took up 
its march for the capital. At the mountain pass of Cer'ro 
Gor'do the enemy was strongly fortified. Our men cut a 
road around the base of the mountain through the forest, 
and dragged cannon up a precipice to the rear of the 
position by ropes. Thence a plunging fire was opened 
simultaneously with an assault in front, and the Mexicans 
fled in haste (April 18). 

The city of Puebla (pweb'lah), next to Mexico in im- 
portance, surrendered without resistance. Here Scott 
waited nearly three months for reenforcements. 



\ G ULF OF 




GENERAL SCOTT'S CAMPAIGN. 



Battles before Mexico. — With 11,000 men the march was 
resumed (August 7), and in three days the army reached 
the crest of the mountains overlooking the magnificent 
valley of Mexico. In the valley was the city, surrounded 
by fertile plains and snow-capped mountains. But the 
way thither was guarded by 30,000 men and strong fortifi- 
cations. Turning to the south to avoid the strongest 
points, by a route considered impassable, the army came 
before the intrenched camp of Contreras (kon tra'ras), 
within fourteen miles of Mexico (August 19). The next 
day this camp was taken, the height of Churubusco (choo- 



220 



POLK'i^ ADMINISTRATION 



[1847 



roo boo'sko) was stormed, numerous batteries were cap- 
tured, and the defenses laid bare to the causeways leading 

to the very gates of the 
city. An armistice and 
fruitless negotiations 
for peace delayed the 
advance until General 
Scott found that the 
Mexicans were only im- 
proving the time in 
strengthening their 
works. Once more (Sep- 
tember 8) our army 
moved to the assault. 
The formidable outworks 




CASTLE OF CHAl'ULTEi'EC. 



The attack was irresistible, 
were taken one by one. At last the castle of Chapultepec 
(chali pool ta pek'), 
on a high rock 
commanding the 
city, was stormed. 
The next day (Sep- 
tember 14) the army 
entered the city, 
and the Stars and 
Stripes waved in 
triumph over the 
Mexican palace. 

Peace.— The fall 
of the capital virtu- 
ally closed the war. 
By the treaty of February 2, 1848, the United States gained 
the vast territory reaching south to the Gila (lie'lah) and 
west to the Pacific, and paid Mexico $15,000,000. 




SCALE OF MILES 



THE MEXICAN CESSION OF 1848. 



1846] DOMESTIC -AFFAIRS 221 

Northwest Boundary. — The northeast boundary dis- 
pute (p, 213) had scarcely been settled, when the Oregon 
question, involving the northwest boundary, came into 
.great prominence. This great territory was held under 
joint occupation with the British ; but when our people 
began to settle it rapidly, the United States was inclined 
to claim the whole of it up to 54° 40'. The French claim 
to the Oregon country had been included in the Louisiana 
purchase, and the Spanish claim was ended by the treaty 
of 1819. The dispute with Great Britain was settled by a 
compromise fixing the boundary line at 49° (1846). See 
maps on images 198 and 226. 

Domestic Affairs.— T/^e Wilmot Proviso. — The new terri- 
tory won from Mexico became at once a bone of conten- 
tion. David Wilmot had offered in Congress (August, 
1846) an amendment to an appropriation bill, forbidding 
slavery in any of the territory that might be acquired. 
This measure, though lost, excited violent debate, and be- 
came the great feature of the fall election. 

Discovery of Gold in California. — A workman in digging 
a millrace on an eastern branch of the Sacramento River 
(Tanuary, 1848) discovered shining particles of gold. A 
further search proved that the soil for miles around con- 
tained the precious metal. The news flew in every direc- 
tion. Emigration began from all parts of America, and 
even from Europe and Asia. In eighteen months 100,000 
persons went from the United States to this El Dora'do, 
where a fortune was to be picked up in a few days. Some 
went by sea, but others made their way across the prairies 
and mountains, amid privations that strewed the route 
with skeletons. A city of shanties sprang np at the entrance 
to San Francisco Bay. Ships in this harbor were deserted 
by their crews, who ran to the mines, sometimes, it is said, 



222 



POLK'S ADMIXISTKATIOX 



[1848 



headed ])y tlieir officers. Soon streets were laid out, houses 
erected, and from this Babel grew up, as if by magic, a 
beautiful city. For a time lawlessness reigned supreme ; 
but, driven by the necessity of events, the more respectable 




MIGRATING TO CALIFORNIA. 



citizens took the law into their own hands, organized "vig- 
ilance committees," and administered a rude but prompt 
justice which presently restored order. 

Isew States. — The admission of Texas, Iowa, and AVis- 
consin (p. 246) made the total number of States thirty, 
of which half Avere free and half slave. 

Political Parties. — Three parties now sought the suf- 
frages of the people. The Whigs nominated General Tay- 
lor for President ; the Democrats, Lewis Cass ; and the 
Free-soilers, who were opposed to the extension of slavery, 
Martin Van Buren. The personal popularity of General 
Taylor, on account of his many sterling qualities and his 
brilliant victories in the ^Mexican war, made him the 
favorite candidate, and he was elected. 



1850] DOMESTIC AFFAIES 223 

TAYLOR AND FILLMORE'S ADMINISTRATION (1849-1853)1 

General Taylor, like General Harrison, died soon after 
his elevation to the presidency. Millard Fillmore, Vice 
President, succeeded him. 

Domestic Affairs. — Slavery questions were the great po- 
litical topic of this administration. When California applied 
.for admission to the Union as a free State, all these sub- 
jects were brought to a focus. A hot debate ensued, and 
for a while it seemed as if the Union would be rent asun- 
der. At this terrible crisis, Henry Clay, the " Great 
Pacificator," came forward, and, with his wonderful elo- 
quence, urged the necessity of mutual compromise and for- 
bearance. Daniel Webster ^ warmly seconded this effort 
at conciliation. 

iZachary Taylor was born i* Virginia in 1784. Soon after bis birth his parents 
removed to Kentucky. His means of education were extremely scanty, and until he 
was twenty-four years of age he worked on his father's plantation. Madison, who 
was a relative and at that time Secretary of State, tlieu secured for him an appoint- 
ment in the army as lieutenant. From this he rose by regular and rapid degrees to 
a major-generalship. Palo Alto, Restica de la Palma, Monterey, and Buena Vista won 
him great applause. He was the hero of a successful war, and the soldiers admiringly 
called him "Old Rough and Ready." Many Whig leaders violently opposed his nomi- 
nation. Daniel Webster called him " an ignorant frontier colonel." The fact that he 
was a slaveholder was warmly urged against him. He knew nothing of civil affairs, 
and had taken so little interest in politics that he had not voted in forty years. His 
nomination caused a secession from the Whigs, which, combined with a similar Demo- 
cratic secession, resulted in the formation of the Free-soil party. As Pi-esident, he 
maintained his popularity, and was one of the most esteemed who have tilled that 
office. He died July 9, 1850, at the presidential mansion, after an illness of five days. 

Millard Fillmore was born in Cayuga County, N. Y., 1800; died at Buffalo, 1874. He 
learned the fuller's trade, taught school, practiced law, served as assemblyman for 
three terms and as congressman for four terms, ran unsuccessfully for governor, and 
was comptroller of the State of New York when he was nominated for the vice-presi- 
dency. By his integrity, industry, and practical ability ho won a place among the 
first statesmen of his day. His approval of the Fugitive Slave Law, however, cost him 
much of his popularity in the North. 

2 When Daniel Webster, the great American statesman and jurist, was fourteen 
years old, he first enjoyed the privilege of a few months' schooling at an academy. 
The man whose eloquence was afterwards to stir the nation was then so shy that he 
could not muster courage to speak before the school. In other respects, however, he 



224 TAYLOR AND FILLMORE'S ADMINISTRATION [1850 



The Compromise of 1850.— The Omnibus Bill, Clay's 
measure, proposed (1) that California should come in as a 
free State (p. 24G) ; (2) that the Territories of Utah and New 
Mexico should be formed without any provision concern- 
ing slavery; (3) that Texas 
should be paid $1 0,000,000 
to give up its claim on ter- 
ritory north and west of 
its present boundaries. 
Clay also proposed (4) that 
the slave trade should be 
prohibited in the District 
of Columbia ; and (3) that 
a Fugitive Slave Law 
should be enacted, pro- 
viding; more ' effectively 
return to their 
of slaves escap- 
a free State, 
various measures 
were finally, though separately, adopted as the best solu- 
tion of the problem. 

Foreign Affairs. — Invasion of Cuha. — About five hun- 
dred adventurers, " filibusters," undertook the annexation 
of Cuba to the United States. The attempt ended in de- 
feat, and in the execution, at Havana, of Lopez, the leader 
(1851). 

Political Parties. — The Democratic and Whig parties 

gave decided promise of bis future eminence. Having finished hip collcRiate educa- 
tion, he entered the profession of hiw. 15y rapid strides be placed himself at the bead 
of American orators. It was adisappointineut to Webster's friends, as it was, perhaps, 
to himself, that he was never placed in the presidential chair. But, lilte Clay, although 
ho raiglit have honored that position, he needed it not to eiibanee bis renown. His 
death, in 1852, called out more orations and sermons than had any other except that of 
Washineton. 




DANIKI. WEliSTER. 



for -the 
owners 
ing to 
These 



1852] POLITICAL PARTIES 225 

both declared that they stood by the provisions of the 
Compromise of 1850. The Free-soil party was outspoken 
against it. Franklin Pierce, the presidential nominee of 
the Democratic party, was elected by a large majority over 
General Scott, the Whig candidate. 

COLLATERAL READINGS 

Oregon.— Schouler's History of the United States, vol. iv. pp. 504-514. 
California.— Schouler, vol. v. pp. 129-142. 

Compromise of 1850 Schouler, vol. v. pp. 143-148, 162-1Y3, 178-189, 196-201 (North- 
ern view) ; Stephens's War between the Slates, vol. ii. pp. 199-221,231-233 (Southern view). 



PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION (1853-1857)^ 

Domestic Affairs. — Kansas-Nebraska Bill. — The Com- 
promise of 1850 produced only a lull in the slavery ex- 
citement. It burst out anew when Stephen A. Douglas 
brought into Congress his famous bill organizing the Ter- 
ritories of Kansas and Nebraska, and advocating the doc- 
trine of " squatter sovereignty," i.e. the right of the 
inhabitants of each Territory to decide for themselves 
whether or not slavery should be allowed there.^ This 

'Franklin Pierce was born 1804; died 1869. He had barely attained the requisite 
legal age when he was elected to the Senate. He there found such men as Clay, Web- 
ster, Calhoun, Seward, Benton, and Silas Wright. Nathaniel Hawthorne says in his 
biography of Mr. Pierce : "With his usual tact and exquisite sense of propriety, he 
saw that it was not the time for him to step forward prominently on this highest thea- 
ter in the land. He beheld these great combatants doing battle before the eyes of the 
nation and engrossing its whole regards. There was hardly an avenue to reputation 
save what was occupied by one or another of those gigantic figures." During Mr. 
Tyler's administration he resigned. When the Mexican war broke out he enlisted as 
a volunteer, but soon rose to the rank of brigadier general. He distinguished himself 
under General Scott, against whom he afterwai-ds successfully ran for the presidency, 
and upon whom, during his administration, he conferred the title of lieutenant general. 
Pierce opposed antislavery measures in every shape, but at the opening of the Civil 
War he espoused the cause of the Union. 

2 The public lands have often threatened the peace of the nation. (1) The question 
of their ownership was one of the greatest obstacles to the union of the States after 
the Revolution : but the threatened trouble was averted by the generosity of the land- 
holding States (p. 163). The public lands south of the Ohio River were ceded on con- 



228 



PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION 



[1854 



bill, beiiig a repudiation of the Missouri Compromise, ex- 
cited intense feeling." It, however, became a law (1854). 
^''Border Warfare.^^ — The struggle was now taken from 
Congress to Kansas. A bitter contest arose between the 
proslavery and the antislavery men — the former anxious 
to secure the State for slavery, the latter for freedom. 
Each party sent armed emigrants to the Territory, and 
civil war ensued. Bands of armed men crossed over from 
Missouri, took possession of the polls, and controlled the 
elections. Houses were attacked and pillaged, and men 
were murdered in cold blood. For several years Kansas 
was the scene of lawless violence. 

Foreign Affairs , — Mexico. — 
Owing to a disagreement of the 
men appointed to locate the 
bounds of the Mexican cession, 
a dispute arose between the 
United States and Mexico. 
MEXKAN cKssioN or 1853. Gcucral Gadsdeu negotiated a 

settlement whereby Mexico was paid $10,000,000, and the 
United States secured (1853) the region known as the Gads- 
den purchase, wliicli was added to New Mexico Territory. 

flition that they slionld he slave soil. North of the Ohio ConRiess made the soil free 
(p. IfiS). (2) After Confrress acqiiircil public lauds west of the Mississippi by the Loui- 
siana purchase, a perplexing question was, Shall they be free or slave soil 1 Upon it, 
for years, hinj;ed largely the politics of the country. The admission of Missouri, 
Texas, California, and Kansas was each the signal for the reopening of this vexed 
question. Though the public lands have been the cause of intestine strife, they have 
been a source of great national wealth. Their sale has brought large sums into the 
treasury. Tliey have been given to settlers as a stimulus to immigration. They have 
been granted to endow ct)lleges and schools, to build railroads, to reward the soldiers 
and support their widows and orphans. 

' The bitter discussion on the repeal of the Missouri Oorapromise, and the contest 
in Kansas, lasted for years. 8cnal(M- Pumner, of Massachusetts, during a s])eech that 
occupied two days (May ID, 20, I8.")r.). having made some .severe reflections upon Senator 
Butler, of Soutli Carolina, was assaulted liy Preston S. Brooks, a nephew of Butler aiul 
a South Carolina representative. Mr. Brooks, having resigned his seat, was innno- 
diatcly returned. It was over throe years before Mr. Sunmer recovered his health. 




1834] 



FOREIGN AFFAIRS 



229 



Japan. — Commodore Perry's expedition to Jaj^an (1854) 
excited great attention. He negotiated a treaty which 
gave to the merchants of the United States two ports of 
entry in that exclusive country. This was the first step 




rEURY'fe VISIT TO JAI'AN. 



made by Japan toward the acquirement of modern 
methods of commerce and modern civilization, in which 
she is now so far advanced. 

Political Parties. — The Compromise of 1820 having been 
repealed, the slavery question became the turning point 
of the election. New party lines were drawn to meet this 
issue.' The Whig party ceased to exist. The new Eepub- 
lican party, absorbing all who opposed the extension of 
slavery, nominated John C. Fremont, who received the 



' A tliird party, called the Know-notUiug or American party, was organized to 
resist the influence of foreigners. It carried the vote of only one State, Maryland. 
Its motto was " America for Americans." The party aroused bitter feelings, but had 
only a transient existence. 
B. HIST. II. s.— 14 



230 BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION [1857 

vote of eleven States. The Democratic party, retain iug its 
organization, nominated James Buchanan, who was elected 
President. 

BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION (1857-1861)1 

Domestic Affairs. — Bred Scott'- Decision. — The Supreme 
Court of the United States (1857), through Chief Justice 
Taney, declared that slav^e-owners might take their slaves 
into any State in the Union without forfeiting their rights 
of property. ' In the North, this was considered as remov- 
ing the last barrier to the extension of slavery, and as 
changing it from a local to a national institution ; in the 
South, it was regarded only as a right guaranteed them 
by the Constitution, whereby they should be protected in 
the possession of their property in every State. 

The Fi(f/it}ve Slave Law had iutensifie<l the already 
heated controversy, and the subject of slavei'y now dis- 

1 James Buchanan was born 1791 ; died 1868. The first "bachekir President" was 
sixty-six years i»ld when called to the executive chair. He had just returned to his 
native country after an absence of some years as minister to Euji^laud. Before that, 
he had been well known in public life, havinj^ l)een representative, senator, and 
Secretary of State. As senator in Jackson's time he heartily supported his adminis- 
tration. With Van Bureii he wannl}' advocated the plan of an independent treasury 
(p. 209), against the opposition of Clay, Webster, and others. Under Tyler, he was 
urgently in favor of the annexation of Texas, thus again coming into conflict with 
Clay and Webster. He cordially agreed with them, however, in the Compromise of 
18r)0(p. 224), and urged the people to adopt it. Much was hoped from his election, as 
he avowed that the object of his administration was to destroy any sectional party 
and to restore fraternal feeling between the different States. But poi)ular passion and 
sectional jealousy were too strong to yield to i>leasaiit persuasion When Mr. Bu- 
chanan's administration closed, the horrors of civil war were close at hand. He 
retired to his estate in Pennsylvania, where he died. 

2 Scott and his wife were slaveys belonging to a surgeon in the United States army. 
They were taken into and resided in Illinois and Minnesota, in territory from which, 
by tlie Oriliuance of 17S7, slavery was forever excluded. Afterwards they were car- 
ried into Missouri, where they and their children were held as slaves. They claimed 
freedom on the ground that, by the act of their master, they had been carried into 
free territory. The decision of the court against their claims created an intense ex- 
citement throughout the country. 



1859] DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 231 

placed all others. The provision which commanded every 
good citizen to aid in the arrest of fugitives was espe- 
cially obnoxious to the North. Disturbances arose when- 
ever attempts were made to restore runaway slaves to 
their masters. Several of the Northern States passed 
"Personal Liberty" bills, securing to fugitive slaves, when 
arrested, the right of trial by jury. The Southerners 
claimed that these laws practically nullified the Fugitive 
Slave Law passed by Congress. Hundreds of slaves were 
assisted to escape to the far North or to Canada by men 
who hated the institution of slavery.' Regular routes 
were established for escaping slaves, and the whole sys- 
tem was called the " Underground Railroad." 

John BroivH, a man who had brooded over the exciting 
scenes through which he had passed in Kansas until he 
thought himself called upon to take the law into his own 
hands, seized upon the United States arsenal at Harpers 
Ferry (1859), and proclaimed freedom to the slaves in the 
vicinity. His feeble band was soon overpowered by United 
States troops, and Brown himself was found guilty of 
treason, of inciting slaves to rebel, and of murder, and was 
hanged. Though it was soon known that in his wild 
design he had asked counsel of no one, yet at the time the 
Southern feeling was aroused to frenzy, his act being 
looked upon as significant of the sentiments of the North. 
Sympathy for the man was mistaken for sympathy in his 
cause. 

New States. — The admission of Minnesota, Oregon, and 
Kansas, all as free States, ended the policy of keeping 
the free and slave States equal in number (p. 247). 

1 The feeling against slavery was greatly increased by Mrs. Stowe's novel called 
Uncle Tom's Cabin, which gives a vivid picture of the possible evils of slavery. The 
book had an enormous sale at the time, and is still read in many countries besides our 
own. The South, however, considered the novel to be misleading and Incendiary. 



232 BrCHANAN'8 ADMINISTRATION [1860 

Political Parties. — The election again turned on the 
question of slavery. The Democratic party now divided, 
and made two conflicting nominations for President: 
Steplien A. Douglas, who favored squatter sovereignty 
(p. 225), and John C. Breckinridge, wlio claimed that 
slavery could be carried into any Territory. The Repub- 
lican party nominated Abraham Lincoln, wlio lield that 
while slavery must be protected where it was, it ought 
not to be carried into the Territories.^ Lincoln was elected. 

The South Secedes. — Throughout the fall campaign the 
Southern leaders had threatened to secede if Mr. Lincoln 
was elected. They now declared it was time to leave a 
government which had fallen into the hands of their 
avowed enemies. Since the days of Calhoun they had 
been firm believers in the doctrine of State rights, which 
taught that a State could leave the Union whenever it 
pleased. In December (1860) South Carolina seceded, and, 
soon after, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisi- 
ana, and Texas passed ordinances of secession. In 
February (1861) delegates from these States met at 
Montgomery, Ala., and formed a government called the 
"Confederate States of America." Jefferson Davis,- of 

1 The Union party pnt up John Bell, of Tennessee. Its motto was, "The Union' 
the Constitution, and the euforceiuent of the laws." 

2 Jefterson Davis vras horn 1808; died 1889. He was a United States senator from 
Mississippi when that State seceded, and had long been prominent in national affairs. 
A graduate of the West Point Military Academy, he served as an army officer in the 
Black Hawk War and elsewhere against the Indians. He resigned in 1835, and settled 
near Vicksburg, Miss., as a cotton planter. Ilis ability as a public speaker won him 
a seat in Congress (1845), which he left to become colonel of the First Mississippi 
Volunteers in the war with Mexico. His regiment formed part of the army under 
General Taylor (Davis's father-in-law), and did some hard fighting at .Monterey and 
Buena Vista, where Davis was severely wounded. He entered tlie United States Senate 
in 1847, was tlie unsucvcssful candidate for governor of Mississippi in 18.11, and in 
18.53-.57 was Secretary of War. In the Senate he was a zealous and able advocate of 
State rights, l)ut up to the time of Lincoln's election he la1)()red to preserve the Union. 
He is tlie author of The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Oovcniment (1831), in 
which he maintains the justice of the Southern cause. 




^-^~^^^^Z^.^^^-^■-'^-^d-i7^^c^a^^ 



234 BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION [1860 

Mississippi, was chosen President, and Alexander H. 
Stephens, of Georgia, Vice President. United States 
forts, arsenals, customhouses, and ships were seized by 
the States in which they were situated. Buchanan did 
nothing to prevent the catastrophe. General Scott was 
infii-m. The regular army was small and widely scat- 
tered. The navy had been sent to distant ports. The 
Cabinet sympathized largely with the secessionists. Nu- 
merous unsuccessful efforts were made to effect a com- 
promise. It was the general expectation that there 
would be no war, and the cry "No coercion" was gen- 
eral.' Yet affairs steadily drifted on toward war.- 

Fort Sumter. — All eyes were now turned on Fort Sum- 
ter. Here Major Anderson kept the United States flag 



1 Even the New York Tribune declared: "Whenever any considerable section of 
our Union shall deliberately resolve to go out, we shall resist all coercive measures to 
keep them lu." 

2 Southern secession was not a sudden inoveineut. The sectional dift'i-rc^nce between 
the North and the South hart its source in the ditfereuce of climate, which trreatly 
modified the character and habits ot the people; also, while the aijricultural pursuits 
aud staple products of the South made slave labor profitable, the mechanical pursuits 
and the more varied products of the North made it unprofitable. These antagonisms, 
settled first by the Missouri Couipromise of 1820, reopened by the tarifi" of 1828, 
bursting forth in the nullification of 18^2, pacified by Clay's compromise tariff, iu- 
crcased through the annexation of Texas and the consequent war with IMexico. irri- 
tated by the Wilmot Proviso, lulled for a time by the Compromise of 1850, awakened 
by the "squatter sovereignty " policy of I)oui.'las, roused to fury by the agitation in 
Kansas, spi'cad broadca-*t by the Dred Scott decision, the attempted execution of the 
Fugitive Slave Law, and the Jolin Hrowu raid, had now reached a point where war 
was the only remedy. The election of Lincoln was the pivot on which the result 
turned. The cause ran back through thirty years of controversy to the ditteronce iu 
climate, in occupation, and in the habit of life and thought. Strange to say, each 
.section misunderstood tiie other. The Southern people believed the North to be so 
engi-ossed in money-making and so enfeebled by luxury that it could send to the Held 
only mercenary soldiers, who would easily be beaten by the patriotic Southerners. 
Tliey said, "Cotton is king"; and believed that England aud France were so depend- 
ent upon thenj for that staple that their republic would be recognized and defended 
by tliose Euroi)ean powers. On the other hand, the Northern people did not l)elicvo 
that the South would dare to fight for secession when it had 4.noo.ooo slaves exposed 
to the chances of war. Tlu'y tliough.t the Southern threats to be all bluster, aud hence 
paid little heed to tlicni. Koth sides sadly learned their mistake, cnly too late. 



1860] FORT SUMTER 235 

flying in Charleston harbor. He had been stationed in 
Fort Moultrie, but, fearing an attack, had crossed over to 
Fort Sumter, a stronger position. The South Carolinians, 
looking upon this as a hostile act, took possession of the 
remaining forts, commenced erecting batteries, and pre- 
pared to reduce Fort Sumter. Major Anderson was com- 
pelled by his instructions to remain a quiet spectator. 
The Star of tlie West, an unarmed steamer bearing sup- 
plies to the fort, was fired upon and driven back. The 
Southern leaders declared that any attempt to relieve 
Fort Sumter would be a declaration of war. The govern- 
ment seemed paralyzed with fear. All now waited for the 
new President. 

In the next epoch we shall learn about the terrible Civil 
War caused by this eflort to secede. During its progress 
slavery received its deathblow, and the issue of the con- 
flict decided that the nation should be henceforth " one 
and inseparable." 

COLLATERAL READING 

I 

The Presidential Election of 1860". — Schouler's History of the United Utales, vo\. v. 
pp. 454-469. 

SOCIETY BEFORE THE CIVIL WAR 

Obliteration of Rank. — The free air of the New World, 
and the independent thought upon every question, con- 
duced to break down the distinctions of rank and dress 
that were at first established (p. 105). This tendency early 
became a source of anxiety to the colonial legislator. In 
1040 it was ordered that as "divers Persons of severall 
Ranks are obsearved still to exceede" in their apparel, 
"the Constables of every towne within their Libertyes 
shall observe and take notice of any particular Person or 



23G 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE STATES 



Persons within their severall Lymits, and all suc^h as they 
jud^e to oxceede their condition and Kank therein, they 

shall present and warn to appear 
at the particular Court." 

These "sumptuary laws" were 
not a dead lettei-, for we read of one 
Alice Flynt who was cited before 
the court and required to show that 
she was worth the two liundred 
pounds required to entitle her to 
wear a silk hood. After Independ- 
ence, social changes went on rap- 
idly. The title "Master" came to 
be confined to holders of slaves, 
while "Mr.," once a sure sign of 
rank, was applied to every male 
in the land, and to omit 
it, when speaking of 
great men, became a 
mark of distinction. So 
rapidly did the new ideas spread, that when 
Lafayette visited America in 1824, he 
asked with astonishment, "Where are the 
common people?" He saw only crowds of 
well dressed citizens, but no yeomen, me- 
chanics, merchants, and servants — the four 
ranks below that of gentleman that were to 
bo distinctly observed when he first saw the 
country, in Revolutionary times. 

Men's knee breeches were discarded for 
trousers about 1815. Though fashions constantly varied, 
as they do still, these two pictures show about how people 
dressed for a number of years before the Civil War. 




WOMAN'S URESS, ABOUT 1840. 




MAN'S DKICSS, 
AHOIT 1840. 



SOCIETY BEFORE THE CIVIL WAR 237 

The Laborer of post-Revolutionary clays, though he had 
secured social and political privileges, could obtain far 
fewer comforts than he can to-day. His house had neither 
paint nor glass windows. Within, it was low and dingy. 
The floor knew no carpets or rugs. The kitchen had no 
stove, or lamp, or coal, or matches. There was no glass 
or chin aware on his table, but he ate his homely fare 
from a wooden plattei*. Fresh meat was a rarity. All the 
staples of life were expensive to one who received only 
two shillings a day. Leather breeches and apron, a coarse 
flannel jacket, and heavy cowhide shoes were the best his 
wardrobe could afford. 

The growth of manufactures in the period 1825-60 
caused many improvements in the condition of laborers, 
A number of trades unions were organized at this time. 
After 1835 many strikes occurred. Wages were gradually 
increased, and an agitation was begun for shortening the 
work day ; in some cases the hours of labor were reduced 
from twelve or fourteen to ten a day. All this applies, 
of course, chiefly to the Northern States; in the South, 
practically all labor was performed by slaves. 

Imprisonment for Debt was common for many years 
after the Revolution as well as before it. The poor man just 
recovering from a long sickness was liable to be aiTested 
for the nonpayment of the little bills incurred during his 
illness, and thrust into prison among the vilest offenders. 
As late as 1830, it is estimated, there were more than 
50,000 people imprisoned for debt in the United States, 
many of them for sums as small as one dollar. But about 
that time the various States began, one by one, to make 
laws abolishing the imprisonment of debtors. Improve- 
ments were also gradually made in the condition of pris- 
ons and in the care of the insane. 



238 DEVELOPMENT OF THE STATES 

The Schools, even within the memory of many persons 
now living, were far inferior in equipment and methods 
to those of our day. The text-books were few and coarsely 
executed. In early times the only reading books were 
the Bible, the Psalter, and the New England Primer. 
After the Revolution, the Columbian Orator — filled with 
patriotic selections — attained a great celebrity. When 
Webster's American Spelling Book was issued, about 1784, 
it gradually came into general use. Murray's Grammar 
and DaboU's Arithmetic were the standards for half a 
century. The ordinary geography was in two volumes — 
one containing the maps and tlie other tlie text. Morse 
invented (1839) a process of engraving whereby the maps 
could be struck off with the text, on a common printing 
press. In a single year 100,000 copies of his New Geog- 
raphy went into use. Writing books were usually home- 
made from foolscap, and ruled by the pupil with lead 
plummets of his own manufacture. Slate pencils were 
also whittled out by tlie boys from soft claystones. 
Quill pens were used, and their making constituted no 
small part of a teacher's task. Wall maps, charts, Ijlack- 
boards, globes, etc., came in only slowly as education 
advanced. 

INDUSTRIAL HISTORY 

During the Revolution, while our commerce was de- 
stroyed and our agricultural interests greatly injured, some 
manufactures received an impetus from the fact that the 
war stopped nearly all imports. The people were forced 
to make for themselves many things which had previously 
been obtained from abroad. 

After peace was made, however, great quantities of 



INDUSTRIAL HISTORY 239 

manufactured goods were shipped in from abroad, glut- 
ting- the markets here, lowering the prices, and discoura- 
ging our manufacturers. But with continued peace, and 
especially after the adoption of our Constitution, all our 
industries revived. In the great war between France and 
Great Britain (1793-1815), each of these countries did 
much to destroy the other's ships and trade. As the 
neutrality of the United States was at first respected, our 
ships were given a great advantage, and our commerce 
and shipbuilding increased by leaps and bounds, as did 
also our agricultural prosperity, until the commerce of 
the United States was exceeded by that of no country in 
the world except Great Britain. 

But each of these warring nations (France and Great 
Britain) soon attacked our trade with, the other, and our 
foreign commerce was completely stopped for a time by 
the embargo (p. 183) ; whereupon the people again gave 
more attention to manufactures. 

The War of 1812 repeats our industrial history. Dur- 
ing the war our commerce was swept from the sea and 
our manufactures were increased ; and upon the conclusion 
of peace a great flood of imports swamped our growing 
manufactures and brought on a period of hard times. In- 
deed, people then found it so hard to make a living in 
the seaboard States that there was a rush to the West. So 
many people emigrated that five new western States were 
admitted to the Union between 181G and 1821. 

In a few years, however, general prosperity returned, 
and the period from about 1820 to 1860 was marked by a 
marvelous advance in all branches of industry. This was 
due largely to the invention of labor-saving machines, 
and to the growth of population. 

Among the American inventions of this period, besides 



240 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE STATES 



the steamboat (p. 181) and the telegraph (p. 212), were 
the sewing machine, mowei", reaper, horse rake, steam 
fire engine, and the vulcanizing of rubber. The vast ex- 
tent of cheap and fertile land in this country, together 
with the better wages paid here for labor, led thousands 
of emigrants from Europe to come to this country every 
year. A great famine in Ireland in 18-1:7 made the num- 
ber much larger, and for several years it was over 300,000 
a year. The total population of the country increased 
from 4,000,000 in 1790 to 31,000,000 in 1860. 




PICKING COTIDX. 



Agriculture. — In the South the greatest change was the 
increase in the growth of cotton (p. 172), until this became 
the staple product of the section, and our most valuable 
export. In 1784, when eight bags of cotton were sent to 
Liverpool, the customhouse authorities seized it on the 
plea that so much could not have been raised in America. 



INDUSTRIAL HISTORY 241 

The yield in 1860 was over 4,500,000 bales, and the United 
States controlled the cotton supply of the world. In 
Louisiana the production of cane sugar became of some 
importance. Tobacco and rice were raised as before, but 
the production of indigo was abandoned. The middle 
West became a highly prosperous agricultural region. 
The production of hay and grain was increased by the in- 
vention of the mower, reaper, and other agricultural 
machinery. In the whole country food crops were raised 
in greater abundance and variety, and cattle, sheep, hogs, 
horses, and other domestic animals greatly increased in 
numbers. 

The increasing demand for lumber during this period 
caused a steady growth in the industry of lumbering. 
Besides, much timber was cut and burned merely to clear 
the ground for agriculture. 

Mining. — From very small beginnings the mining in- 
dustry grew to great proportions. The most important 
mines were those of coal and iron in Pennsylvania, but 
nearly every State yielded mineral products of some kind. 
In the reduction of iron ore and the working of iron, until 
about 1840, charcoal made from wood was the fuel em- 
ployed ; but by 1860 this had given place almost entirely 
to coke made from coal. During the first half of the cen- 
tury gold was sparingly mined in the foothills of the south- 
ern Appalachians, but these mines were entirely eclipsed 
by the far richer ones of California, which led to the rapid 
settlement and admission of that State. Soon after this 
the silver mines of Nevada attracted much attention. 
Lead has been mined in Missouri, and copper in Michi- 
gan, from the earliest times. New York has long supplied 
large quantities of salt. Building stones, as needed, have 
been quarried in many States. 



242 DEVELOPMENT OF THE STATES 

The Manufactures of the country in the year 1860 
amounted to nearly $2,000,000,000 worth — ten times the 
value of the output in 1810. The great feature in the de- 
velopment of manufacturing' was the introduction of the 
factory system ; that is, the plan of making articles by 
the help of machines in factories instead of at the homes 
of the workmen. As the machine-made factory products 
became cheaper and cheaper, the household manufactures 
were abandoned. The new sj'stem stimulated the growth 
of cities : in 1790 there were very few towns, and nearly 
all the people lived in the country, but in 1860 there were 
140 cities and large towns, in which lived one sixth of our 
total population. 

In 1790 Samuel Slater began the operation of the first 
good cotton-spinning machinery in this countiy; he 
has been called " the father of American manufactures." 
About a quarter of a century latei' Francis C. Lowell 
started the fii-st factory which carried on all the processes 
of making cotton goods — from raw fiber to cloth — by 
improved machinery, including the power loom. By 1860 
there were 1000 cotton factories. Nearly all of these 
were in New England and the Middle States, but a few 
were in the South. Thus Whitney's cotton gin not only 
made the South prosperous in raising cotton, but also 
afforded the North an important industry in manufactur- 
ing the fiber into cloth. 

Among the other branches of manufacture which 
reached a flourishing condition before 1860 were the 
making of woolen goods, the making of boots and shoes, 
iron manufacture, and the making of rubl)er goods. 

Transportation. — Within a few years after the first trip 
of the Ckrmcmt (p. 181), steaml)oats were plying on 
nearly every navigable river and lake in the Union. 



INDUSTRIAL HISTORY 



243 



Canals were dug in several States. Many roads were laid 
out/ The cars on the first railroads were drawn by horses, 
and it was not till 1830 that steam locomotives were used 
for this purpose/ In 1860 there were 30,000 miles of rail- 




AN EARLY RAILROAD TKAIN. 



road in the country. The express business was begun in 
1839, between New York and Boston. It grew rapidly, 
and soon there were established a dozen express com- 
panies. 

Commerce. — With the increase in the area of the coun- 
try and the greater variety of its industries, domestic com- 
merce came to be much 
greater than the foreign 
commerce, though the 
latter steadily increased 
in value. Great num- 
bers of ships (especially 
wooden sailing ships) 
were built, and American 
clippers were famous for 
their speed. About 1860 
more American shipping was engaged in foreign trade 
than ever before or since. 

• One of the most important was the National Pike, or Cumberland Road, which ex- 
tended from the Potomac Pdver to Wheeling, on the Ohio, and beyond. This was begun 
in the year 1806, and was constructed by the United States government. 

2 The first locomotive built in America was made by Peter Cooper, of New York, for 
the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. 




CLIPPER SHIP. 



2^4 NEW STATES [1791 



NEW STATES (1789-1861) 

The States admitted during the fourth epoch increased tlie nuiuber in the Union 
from thirteen to thirty-four. (See Table of States, in the appendix.) 

Vermont, the fourteenth 8tat«', was a<iinitted to the Union March 4, 1791. Cham- 
plain discovered and explored much of it in IGO'J. The first settlement was made in 
1724, at Fort Dunimer, near the site of Brattleboro. The region was claimed by both 
New Hampshire and New York (p. 127). In 1777 the inhabitants declared the "New 
Hampshire Grants " an independent State, under the mime of Vermont; and in 1790 
New York consented to relinquish her claim on the payment of SoO.OOO. 

Kentucky, the fifteenth State, was admitted to the Union June 1, 1792. Daniel 
Boone, a famous hunter, for two years rambled through the forests of this region, de- 
lighted with its scenery and the abundance of game. After many thrilling adventures 
and narrow «'scapes from the Indians, he establislied a fort at Boon(!sl)oi(), and removed 
his family thither in June, 1775. This was the first permanent settlement in the State, 
then a part of Virginia, from which it was not separated til! it became a State. 

Tennessee, tlie sixteenth State, was ■uhnitted to the Union June 1, 17t:6. It was 
named from the River Tennessee, the " river with the great lieud." It is thought that 
De Soto, in his wanderings, reached the Mississippi ni?ar the spot where Memphis 
now stands. The first permanent settlenu'iit in the S^tate was at Fort Loudon (low'don), 
thirty miles from the present site of KnoxviUe, in 1757. This was the first i>ermanent 
English settlement south of Pennsylvania and west of the Alleghanies. In 1779 James 
Robertson and others located where Nashville now stands, but where was then a wil- 
derness. Teimessee was originally part of North Carolina. In 1784 its inhabitants 
formed the "State of Franklin" and set up an independent government. But North 
Carolina resmued control in a few years, and in 1790 ceded this region to the United 
States, whereupon Congress gave it a territorial government. 

Ohio, the seventeenth State, was admitted to the Union February 19, 1803. It was 
so called from the river of that name, signifying the "beautiful river." The first 
explorations were made by the French, under La Salle, about 10G9. The first perma- 
nent settlement was at Marietta, in 17H8. Ohio was the first State carved out of the 
Northwest Territory (p. 163). 

Louisiana, the eighteenth State, was admitted to the Union Ajiril 30, 1812. The 
name Louisiana was originally given to the entire Mississippi valley, in honor of 
Louis XIV., king of France, in 1682 (p. 39). New Orleans, founded in 1718, was the first 
important settlement in the present State. Earlier settlements were made along the 
Gulf coast, in what are now Mississippi and Alal)ama. In 1718 the colony was granted 
to the great Mi88i8sij)pi Company, organized by John Law, at Paris, for th<! purpose 
of settling and deriving profit from the French possessions in North America. In a 
fever of speculation the shares of tliis company rose in price to thirty or forty times 
their original value. When the bubble burst, the French crown resumed control of 
the country. The territory west of the river, together with New Orleans, was given 
to Spain in 1763, but in 1800 was ceded back to France. When the United States i)ur- 
chased it (p. 176), Louisiana included all the region between the Mississippi and the 
Rocky Mountains and north to the British iwesessions; also New Orleans and a strip 
of land along the Gulf coa.st east of the river, of disputed extent. In 1804 the entire 
region was di\ided into two parts — the Territory of Orleans, which included the present 
State of Louisiana, and the District of Louisiana, which comprised the remainder. 



1816] NEW STATES 245 

The former was admitted to the Union as Louisiana ; the latter became the Territory 
of Louisiana in 1805, and its name was afterwards changed to Missouri Territory. 

Indiana, the nineteenth State, was admitted to the Union December 11, 1816. The 
Territory of Indiana, established in 1800, at lirst included practically all of the North- 
west Territory west of what is now Ohio. Indiana was the second State admitted from 
the Northwest Territory. After the Indian difficulties which hindered its early devel- 
opment had subsided, its growth was very rapid. Between 1810 and 1820 its population 
increased six hundred per cent. 

JUississipiji, the twentieth State, was admitted to the Union December 10, 1817. 
De Soto traversed this region in 1541. The French made a temporary settlement at 
Biloxi in 1699; and other settlements were established on the Mississippi soon after. 
In 1728 the Indians swept every vestige of civilization from tlie present limits of the 
State. Under the French governors who followed, fierce and bloody wars were waged 
with the Natcli'ez, Chiclv'asaw, and Choctaw Indians ; liut in 1763 most of this region, 
with other French territory east of the Mississippi, was given to Great Britain. The 
Mississippi Territory was created in 1798, including land in dispute between Georgia 
and the United States. Lands ceded by Soiitli Carolina, Georgia, and France and 
Spain were afterwards added until it embraced the present States of Mississippi 
and Alabama. The latter became a separate Territory in March, 1817. 

, Illinois, the twenty-first State, was admitted to the Union December 3, 1818. Its 
first settlements were made by the French. The Illinois Territory, comprising the 
present States of Illinois, Wisconsin, and parts of Minnesota and Michigan, was estab- 
lished in 1809. The settlement of this Territory was greatly impeded by Indian hostili- 
ties. The massacre at Fort Dearborn (Chicago), in 1812, and the Black Hawk War are 
instances of the dangers and trials which beset the pioneer. Tlie great prosperity of 
the State dates from the year 1850, when miniiflcent grants of land were made to the 
Central Railroad. The prairie wilderness was rapidly settled, and towns and cities 
sprang up as by magic. 

Alabama, the twenty -second State, was admitted to the Union December 14, 1819. 
It was a part of Mississippi Territory till 1817, when it was made a separate Territory. 
The fierce contests with the Creek Indians, ended by Jackson, opened to the settlers in 
Alabama a vast and fertile region. The first settlement was made by Bienville (be Sn- 
vee!) on Mobile Bay in 1702. Nine years afterwards the present site of Mobile was 
occupied. Mobile was for many years the capital of French Louisiana. Having been 
ceded to Great Britain and then (as part of Florida) to Spain, in 1813 it was captured 
by the United States, which claimed it as part of Louisiana. 

Maine, the twenty-third State, was admitted to the Union, with the consent of Mas- 
sachusetts, March 15, 1820 (see pp. 66, 67). 

Missouri, the twenty-fourth State, was admitted to the Union August 10, 1821. Its 
oldest town, Ste. Genevieve, was founded in 1755. St. Louis was settled nine years 
after, but was not incorporated as a town until 1809 ; its first newspaper was published 
m 1808, and the first steamboat arrived at its wharf in 1817. When the District of Loui- 
siana was organized as Louisiana Territory in 1805, St. Louis was made its capital. On 
the admission of Louisiana, the name of the Territory was changed to Missouri. When 
Missouri became a State it was given its present limits, except the northwest corner, 
which was purchased from the Indians and added to Missouri in 1836. 

Arkansas, the twenty-fifth State, was admitted to the Union June 15, 1836. It was 
explored and .settled by the French under Chevalier de Tonty as early as 1G85. Shortly 
before the admission of the State of Missouri, Arkansas was organized as a Territory, 
including the present State and also a large area to the west of it. 

B. HIST. U. S. — 15 



240 NEW STATES [1837 

Miehiyun, the twenty-sixth State, was admitted to the Union January 26, 1837. It 
■was t'arlj' visiU'd Ity missionaries (p. 38) and fur traders. Detroit was founded in 1701 
by Cadillac. T liis region was first a part of the Northwest Territory and tlieu of Indiana 
Territory; but the "lower peninsula" was organized as a separatt! Territory in 1805. 
The country north of the present Btate of Illinois was annexed to Michigan Territory 
in 1818, and that north of Missouri in 1834. The State was given its present boundaries 
in 1836. 

V Florida, the twenty-seventh State, was admitted to the Union March 3, 1845, Its 
early visitors,— Ponce de Leon, Narvacz, and De Soto, — its first settlement at St. 
Augustine, its history under the Spaniards, and the Seminole War are descrilied in 
earlier pages of this book. After the purchase from Spain, tlio Territiu-y of Florida 
was organized March 30, 1822. 

^ Texas, the twenty-eighth State, was admitted to the I'nion December 29, 1845. It 
was explored by La Salle (p. 39). The Spaniards afterwards explored and partly settled 
the couutry, establishing missions at various points. These did not prosper, however, 
and the region was popiUatod mainly by roving bauds of Indians. Civil war had im- 
poverished the few settlers who were unable to flee from the country, and Galveston 
was nearly deserted, when, in 1820, Moses Austin, a native of Connecticut, obtained 
from the Spanish authorities in Mexico a grant of land. Emigration fnnn the United 
States was encouraged, and in 1830 there were 20,000 Americans in Texas. The jealousy 
of Mexico being excited, acts of oppression followed, and in 1835 the Texans were 
driven to begin a war for independence. In 1836 the Mexican President, Santa Anna, 
attacked the Alfi'mo with 4000 men. The fort was garrisoned by only 172 men, and 
every oue of tliat gallant few died at his post except seven, who were; killed while 
asking for quarter. Hero David Crockett, the famous hunter, who had vcdiuiteered to 
fight with the Texans for their liberty, fell, pierced with wouuds, but surrounded by 
the corpses of those whom he had cut down before he was overpowered. In the battle 
of San Jacinto (map, p. 214), Santa Anna, with 1500 men, was defeated by 800 under 
General Sam Houston. Santa Anna was soon captured, and agreed to terms of peace. 
The next > ear (1837) Texas sought admission into the Union. In 1844 the (luestion was 
revived. The dose of Tyler's administration was marked by the signing of a resolution 
of Congress for its admission. This measure was ratified by Texas the same year. 
In 1850 the State gave up its claim to lands northwest of its present limits, including 
half of New Mexico and small paits of Oklahoma, Kansas, and Colorado (p. 224). 

Iowa, the twenty-ninth State, was admitted to the Union December 28, 1846. Jnlien 
Du buque', a Canadian Frenchman, obtained, in 1788, a large tract of laud, including 
the present site of Dubuque. He there built a fort and traded with the Indians till 
1810. The first permanent settlement was made at Burlington, in 1833, by emigrants 
from Illinois. The same year Dubu(]uo was founded. This region of the Louisiana 
purchase was successively a part of Missouri, Michigan, and Wisconsin Territories, 
but was organized separately in 1H38. It then included the parts of Minnesota and the 
Dakotas between the Mississippi and Missouri rivers; but when admitted as a State it 
was reduced to its present limits. 

Wisconsin, the thirtieth State, was admitted to the Union May 29, 1848. It was ex- 
plored by French missionaries ami traders as early as 1639. Green Bay was founded in 
1745. This region was part of the Northwest Territory. It was comi>riseil iu the Terri- 
tory of Illinois, then of Michigan, and in 1836 became a separate Territory. 

California, the thirty-first State, was admitted to the Union September 9. 18.50 
(p. 224). Sir Francis Drake, in 1579, sailed along its coast, naming it New Albion (p. 41). 
In 1769 the Spaniards established the mission of San Diego (de a' go), and in 1776 one at 



1858] . NEW STATES 247 

San Francisco. In 1803 they had eighteen missions with over 15,000 converts, and the 
government of the country was in the liands of Franciscan monies. The Mexican 
revolution, in 1822, overthrew the Spanish power in California, and, soon after, the 
Franciscans were ."tripped of their wealth and influence. In 1831 the white population 
did not exceed 5000. From 1843 to 1846 many emigrants from the United States settled 
in California. By the treaty at the clo.se of the Mexican war, the United States ac- 
quired Upper California and New Mexico, embracing what are now known as California, 
Nevada, Utah, and parts of Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Wyoming. The town 
of San Francisco was known as Yerba Buena (good herb) until 1847, when it was given 
its present name. About that time it had a population of 459, and its chief business 
was a small trade in exporting hides. The discovery of gold in California gave the 
city its first great importance. Within eighteen months following December, 1849, 
the city lost by fire 116,000,000 worth of property, though its population did not exceed 
30,000. Such, however, was the enterprise of its citizens that these tremendous losses 
scarcely interrupted its growth or prosperity. 

Minnesota, the thirty-second State, was admitted to the Union May 11, 1858. In 
1680 a French priest named Hennepin penetrated this region. Other travelers fol- 
lowed, but only within the niucteenth century was the whole country thoroughly 
explored. Fort Snelling was established in 1819. The first building in St. Paul was 
erected a1)out 1838. The Territory of Minnesota was organized in 1849, with the Mis- 
souri and White Earth rivers for its western boundary, thus embracing nearly twice the 
area of the present State. At that time its population was less than 5000, consisting 
chiefly of whites and half-breeds settled about the various missions and trading posts, 
lu 1851 the Sioux ceded a large tract of land to the United States. After this the popu- 
lation increased so rapidly that in six years Minnesota applied for admission into 
the Union. 

Oregon, the thirty-third State, was admitted to the Union February 14, 1859. In 
1792 Captain Gray, of Boston, entered the river to which he gave the name of his ship 
— Columbia. On his return he made such a flattering report that there was a general 
desire to know more of the country. After the Lewis and Clark expedition (p. 178) an ex- 
tensive fur trade soon began. Fort Astoria was built in 1811 by the American Fur Com- 
pany, of which John Jacob Astor was a prominent member. Ilunters and trappers in 
the employ of American and British companies roamed over the whole region. Fort 
Vancouver was occupied by the Hudson Bay Company, a British organization, till 
1860. After 1836, and especially after 1842, American emigration set overland to this 
region. The danger of war, which had seriously threatened its dawning pi-osperity, 
was averted when the northwest boundary was settled bj- the treaty of 1846. In 1848 
Oregon was organized as a Territory, and included all the land west of the Rocky 
Mountains between the parallels of 42° ajid 49° noi-th latitude. In 1850 Congress granted 
three hundred and twenty acres to every man, and the same to his wife, on condition 
of residence on the land for four years. Eight thousand claims were made for farms. 
In 1853 the northern part of Oregon was cut oflf and constituted Washington Territory ; 
and in 1859 the present eastern limit of Oregon was established. 

Kansas, the thirty-fourth State, was admitted to the Union January 29, 1861. 
Nearly all of this region was part of the Louisiana purchase. After the States of 
Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri, and Iowa, and Minnesota TeiTitory had been carved 
from that purchase, there was left a vast unoccupied tract west of the Missouri River, 
which was organized by the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854. The territorial government 
of Kansas was proslavery (p. 228), but when the people came to vote on the adoption 
of a State constitution, the majority were shown to be antislavery. 



248 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS 



1. Washiaerton's Admin- 
istration. (1TMU-U7.) 



1. Inauguration. 

2. Difficulties of the New Government 

I'inaiireit. 



3. Domestic Affairs. 



Foreih'ii Affairs. 
Political Parties. 



John A 
istrat 



(1. Domestic Affairs. 
dams',s_ Artmin- ) 2. Foreign Affairs, 
ion. (1,9.-1801.) I ;j. Political Parties. 



h. National f'apital. 

c. Coitoii (iiii. 

d. \Vlii8ky Kihcllion. 
<■. Indian' Wars. 

r a. Great Bntain. 

h. Spain and Algiers. 
' c. Kranrc. 

Alien and Sedition Lawn. 
Krancc. 



3. Jefferson'.s Adniini.stra- 
tion. (1801-09.) 



Madison's Adnainistra- 
tion. (1809-17.) 



5. Monroe's Administra- 

tion. (1817-25.) 

6. Joiin Qnincy Adami;'s 

Administration. 
(182.5-29.) 



Jacksoia's Administra- 
tion. (1829-:57.) 



Van Buren's Adminis- 
tration. (1837-41.) 



9. Harrison and Tyler's 
Administration. 
(1841-1.5.) 



Purchiise of Louisiana. 

Lewis and riark Expedition. 
h. Twelfth Amendment. 
Aaron Burr. 
, Fulton's Steamboat. 



Domestic Affairs. 



Foreign Affairs. 
Political Parties. 
Domestic Affairs. 

Foreign Affairs — 
War with Great 
Britain. 

Political Parties. 
Domestic Affairs. 

Foreign Affairs. 

Political Parties. 
Domestic Affairs. 



2. Political Parties. 

1. Domestic Affairs. 

2. Foreign Affairs. 

3. Political Parties. 

1. Domestic Affairs. 

2. Foreign Affairs. 

3. Political Parties. 
1. Harrison's Death. 



2. Domestic Affairs. 



10. 



Polk'.s Administra- 
tion. (184.5-49.) 



11. Taylor and Fillmore's 
Administration. 
(1849-53.) 



Foreign Affairs. 
Political Parties. 
Foreign Affairs. 

Domestic Affairs. 
Political Parties. 
Taylor's Death. 



12. 



Pierce's Administra- 
tion. (1853-57.) 



13. Buchanan's Adminis- 
traition. (1857-61.) 



a. War with Tripoli. 

6. Great liritniii and Franre. 

Battle of Tippecanoe. 

a. Causes. 

6. War on Land, 1812, IHl.t, 1814. 

r. War on Si a. 1812, 181i 

H. I'lare. 

e. Bat til' of New Orleans. 

/. Results of the War. 



< a. Missouri CoinpromiBe. 
■ ■ Lafayette's Visit. 

Great Britain. 

Florida 

tloiiroe Doctrine. 



C a. Gr 

I h. Fli 
( c. .Mo 



Protective Tariff. 
Erie Canal, etc. 



Rotation in Office. 
Ntillitication. 
Bank of United States. 
Spi cnlntiiin. 
Indian Troubles. 
France. 

n. Crisis ol \Kn. 
h. Sul)trea«ury Bill. 
Canadian " Ratriot War." 



a. Onitiil States Bank. 

4. Sutirage nifticulties ( R. I.V 

c. AntiKint Ditticulfiis (N. Y.). 

rf. M«K"etic Teligrapli. 

r. The Miirnioiis. 
5 n. Northeast Boundary. 
t b. Annexation of Te.Nas. 



War with Mexico (1846-47). 
Northwest Boundary. 
Wilmot Proviso. 
Discovery of Gold in California. 



2. Domestic Affairs. 

3. Foreign Affairs. 

4. Politic.ll Parties. 

1. Domestic Affairs. | 

2. Foreign Affairs. | 

3. Political Parties. 

1. Domestic Affairs. 



Compromise of 18.W. 
Cuba. 

a. Kansas-Nebraska Bill. 
ti. Border W'arfare. 
a. Mexico. 
h. Japan. 



2. Political Parties. 

3. The South Secedes. 
( 4. Fort Sumter. 

14. Society before the Civil War. 

15. Industrial History. 

. 16. NewStates.(1789-1861.) \ ]■ l^^'veSes. 



f! 



Dred Scott Derision. 
Fugitive Slave Law. 
John Drown. 



EPOCH Y.— THE CIYIL WAR (1861-1865) 

(LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION)! 
1861 

Rumors of a plan to assassinate Lincoln impelled him 
to come to Washington secretly. He was inaugurated 
March 4, 1861, surrounded by troops under General Scott. 

Condition of the Country. — x\.ll was now uncertainty. 
Southern officers in the army and navy of the United 
States were daily resigning and linking their fortunes 
with the Confederate cause. There was still, however, a 
strong Union sentiment in the South. Many prominent 
men in both sections hoped that war might be averted. 
The Federal authorities feared to act, lest they should 
I)recipitate civil strife. In striking contrast to this inde- 
cision was the marked energy of the new Confederate 
government. It was gathering troops, voting money and 
supplies, and rapidly preparing for the issue. 

1 Abraham Lincoln was bora in Kentuckj% February 12, 1809 ; died in Washington, 
April 15, 1865. His father was unable to read or write, and his own education consisted 
of one year's schooling. Hoping to better his fortune, the father moved to Indiana, 
the family floating down the Ohio on a raft. When nineteen years of age the future 
President hired out at $10 a mouth as a hand on a flatboat, and made a trip to New 
Orleans. On his return he accompanied the family to Illinois, driving the cattle on 
the journey. Having reached their destination, he helped them to build a cabin, and 
to split rails to inclose the farm. He was now, in succession, a flatboat hand, clerk, 
captain of a company of volunteers in the Black Hawk War, country storekeeper, 
postmaster, and surveyor; j'ct he managed to get a knowledge of law by borrowing 
books at an office before it closed at night, returning them at its opening in the morn- 
ing. On being admitted to the bar, he rapidly rose to distinction. At twenty -live he 
was sent to the legislature, and was thrice reelected. In 18-16 ho was elected to Con- 
gress, and served one term as representative. In 1858 he was candidate for senator 

249 



1861J 



CAPTURE OF FORT SUMTER 



251 



Capture of Fort Sumter (April 13). — Finding that sup- 
plies were to be sent to Fort Sumter, General Peter Gr. T. 
Beauregard (bo're gard), who had command of the Con- 
federate troops at Charleston, called upon Major Ander- 




BOxMBAKD.MKXT OF FOKT SUMTER. 

son to surrender. Upon his refusal, fire was opened from 
all the Confederate forts and batteries.^ This " strange 

a second time, against Stephen A. Douglas. The two rivals stumped the State to- 
gether, discussing great uatioual questions. The debate, unrivaled for its statesman- 
ship, logic, aud wit, won for Lincoln a national reputation, but he lost the election in 
the legislature. After his accession to the presidency, his history, lite Washington's, 
is identified -with that of his country. Ho was a tall, ungainly man, little versed in 
the refinements of society, but gifted by nature with great common sense, and every- 
where known as " Honest Abe." Kind, earnest, sympathetic, faitliful, democratic, 
he was anxious only to serve his country. His wan, fatigued face and his bent form 
told of the cares he bore and the grief he felt. His only relief was when, tossing aside 
for a moment the heavy load of responsibility, his face would light up with a humor- 
ous smile while he narrated some incident whose irresistible wit and aptness to the 
subject at hand convulsed his hearers, and rendered "Lincoln's stories" household 
words throughout the nation. 

1 The first gun was fired at half-past four o'clock Friday morning, April 12, 1861 
Anderson surrendered April 13 and marched out April 14. 




352 



o 



w 



^ 



m 



.m 



WsVPEji- 



-4 '^ 



A 



N^ 



I :ato 



Lacrosse) 









, O 

i"^ 1 






aacrossel T^^??^ Lw^"*^ 2tVsJ-^ 

\ ^D'P°-S<^r-^ ^ / .•--^n^Lroirjf 















DINESy;, t4~,y T^jfc>" / ; ' 1. ---— 













'^"Sey 



va 









VVaiiBiiren ^ rK/,JWchattan2Pg^2J^^i/7''!)i=r XV V, , T *1 --^^^ \ 




.St.Philip 1 1 ' 

I /lamp*' 

■^^ ^ ^ 1 *^ dl 

THE UNITED STATES 
in 1861 

SCALE OF MILES 

100 ^ ^ 



200 sSo loo" 




^^yWesf- _^j^o.l 



"t^ 









30 



253i 



254 



THE CIVIL WAR 



[1861 



contest between seventy men and seven thousand " lasted 
for thirty-four hours, no one being hurt on either side. 
The barracks having been set on fire by the shells, the 
garrison, worn out, suffocated, and half blinded, were 
forced to capitulate. They were allowed to retire with 
the honors of war, saluting their flag before hauling it 
down. 

The Effect of this event was electrical. It unified the 
North, and also the South. The war spirit swept over the 
country like wildfire. Party lines vanished. Many Union 
men in the South were borne into secession, while Repub- 
licans and Democrats 
in the North combined 
to support the govern- 
ment. Lincoln issued 
a call on the States for 
75,000 militia, to serve 
for three months. It 
was responded to by 
a greater number of 
men, and the Ameri- 
can flag, the symbol of 




CONFEDERATE CAPITOI. AT RICHMOND. 



Revolutionary glory 
and of national unity, was unfurled throughout the North. 
The military enthusiasm in the South was equally ardent. 
Virginia, Arkansas, North Carolina, and Tennessee,- which 
had before hesitated, joined the Confederacy. Virginia 
troops seized the United States arsenal at Harpers Ferry 
and the navy yard near Norfolk. Troops from the ex- 
treme South were rapidly pushed into Virginia, and 
threatened Washington. The Sixth Massachusetts Regi- 
ment, hurrying to the defense of the national capital, was 
attacked in the streets of Baltimore, and several men 



THE WAE IN THE EAST 



55 



1861] 

were killed. This was the first bloodshed in the Civil War, 
and it occurred on April 19, the anniversary of Lexington 
and Concord. In May, Richmond, Ya., was made the Con- 
federate capital. 

THE WAR IN THE EAST 

Arlington Heights and Alexandria, opposite Washington, 
were seized (May 24) by the national troops. This pro- 
tected the capital from immediate danger of attack. Fort 
Monroe, a formidable fortification near the entrance to 
Chesapeake Bay, was now garrisoned by a heavy force 
under General B. F. Butler.' In an expedition made soo,n 



ASHltyTSSvON ^-^ Atii lift 










) Hii I tou*^*' Monrce 

/-v^ /^C Iler, 

II itv, itiylNoAfolk 



rlci 
C Henry 



WAR IN THE EAST, 1861. 

after against Big Bethel, the troops fired into each other 
by mistake, and when they came to attack the Confederate 
defenses they were repulsed with loss. 

Western Virginia adhered to the Union, and was ulti- 
mately formed into a separate State. The Confederates, 

1 At Hampton, whicli liad been occupied by the Confederates, some negroes were 
captured who had been employed in building fortitications. Butler declared them 
" contraband of war," and this gave rise to the popular use of the term " contraband" 
to mean negro slaves who were set free by Federal soldiers. 



256 THE CIVIL WAR [1861 

however, occupied it in force. The Federals, luidef (icn- 
eral George B. McC.lellan, defeated them in several battles, 
wresting most of the region from their control. Shortly 
afterwards a Confederate force was sent into the Kanawha 
(ka naw'wa) valley ; but part of it was defeated by General 
Rosecrans at Caknifex Ferry, and the Confederates were 
soon forced to withdraw. Almost the only Union victories 
of this year were achieved in this part of Virginia. 

Battle of Bull Run (July 21).— The Northern people, 
seeing many regiments gathered at Washington, were 
impatient for an advance. The cry " On to Richmond ! " 
became too strong to be resisted. General Irvin McDowell, 
with the Army of the Potomac, moved to attack the main 
body of the Confederates, which was strongly posted, under 
Beauregard, at Bull Run. After a sharp conflict, the 
Confederate left was driven from its position. It was 
rallied, however, on the brigades of General T. J. Jackson ' 
and others, on a plateau in the rear. While the Federal 
troops were struggling to drive them from this new posi- 
tion, at the crisis of the battle, several brigades, under 
Kirby Smith,'- Early, and others, coming up from the west, 
successively struck the Union flank and finally drove it in 
confusion. The retreat became a panic-stricken rout, 
many of the fugitives never stopping till they were safe 
at Alexandria and Arlington. 

' General Bee, as he rallied liia men, Pliontod: "There's Jackson standinp like a 
Btouc wall!" "From that time," says Draper, "the name he had received in a bap- 
tism of fire displaced that he hiid received in a baptism of water, and he was known as 
* Stonewall Jackson.' " 

2 Jackson's and Pmith's l)rifradea formed part of General Joseph K. Johnston's 
command, which came from Winchester, (ieneral Patterson, with ll,o()0 men, had 
been left to watch Johnston and prevent his joining Beaurctrard. Johnston was too 
shrewd for his antajronist, and, slippin>: away, reached Bnll Kiin with fiOOO men the 
day before the battle, while more of his men arrived just at the crisis of the strnnRle. 
The number of Union Tnen who were actually en^'a;red at Bull Kuu was about 18,000; 
the number of Confederates engaged, somewhat greater. 



1861] 



BULL RUN 



257 



The Effect of this defeat was momentous. At first the 
Northern people were chagrined and disheartened. Then 
came a renewed determination. They saw the true char- 
acter of the war, and no longer dreamed that the South 
could be easily overawed. They were to fight a brave 
people — Americans, who were to be conquered only by a 
desperate struggle. Congress voted to enlist 500,000 men. 




SOLDIEKS' MONUMENT, BATTLEFIELD OF BULL KUN. 

Greneral McClellan, hero of the brilliant campaign in 
western Virginia, was appointed to the command of the 
Army of the Potomac, and soon after, upon General Scott's 
retirement, became general in chief of all the Federal 
armies. 

Balls Bluff (October 21).— About 2000 Federals, who 
had crossed the Potomac at Balls Bluff on a reconnoiter- 
ing expedition, were attacked by the Confederates and 
forced down the bluff to the river. Only about half their 
number succeeded in reachins: the other bank.^ 



I Colonel Baker, United States senator from Oregon, was among the killed. 



258 



THE CIVIL WAR 



[18G1 



THE WAR IN THE WEST 

Missouri was largely Union, and did not secede ; yet 
Governor Jackson of this State tried t<> carry it into the 
Confederacy, or at least to preserve an armed neutrality. 
Captain Lyon foiled this attempt. He saved the United 
States arsenal at St. Louis, and easily defeated the gov- 
ernor's troops. A few weeks later, however, Lyon, now 
General, found that he must either fight the superior 
forces of Generals McCuUoch and Price, or else abandon 

the southern part of 
the State. At the 
head of about 6000, 
he attacked more 
than twice that 
number at Wilsons 
Creek (August 10). 
He fell, gallantly 
leading a charge, 
and his men were 
defeated. Soon aft- 
er, Lexington ' was 
forced to surrender, 
WAR IN Tin; WKST, 1861. after a brave de- 

fense. But before long the Confederates were crowded 
south to Arkansas. 

Kentucky, like Missouri, did not secede, and tried to 
remain neutral. Soon both Confederate and Union 
troops were encamped on her soil, and the State was 
ravaged by hostile armies.'- 

1 The Confederates, in tbeir final asfianlt, fnufiht beliind a movable breastwork 
composed of lieinit bales, which they rolled toward tlie fort as they advaneed. 

2 In all the l)order states aflairs were in a most lamentable condition. The people 
•were divided in opinion, and some enlisted in each army. As the tide of war surged to 




1861] THE WAR ON THE SEA AND ON THE COAST 259 
THE WAR ON THE SEA AND ON THE COAST 

^ Early in the war Davis issued a proclamation offering 
to commission privateers.' In reply, Lincoln declared a 
blockade of the Southern ports. At that time there were 
but few efficient vessels on the Northern coast, and the 
entire Federal navy comprised only forty-two ships; but 
at the close of the year the navy numbered' two hundred 
and sixty-four. 

Two joint naval and military expeditions were made 
during the year. The first captured the forts at Hattekas 
Inlet, N. C. The second took the forts at Port Royal 
Entrance, S. C Port Royal became a great depot for 
the Union fleet (map, p. 253). 

The Trent Affair. — Great Britain and France had ac- 
knowledged the Confederate States as belligerents, thus 
placing them on the same footing with the United States 
in respect to military operations. Having, therefore, 
great hopes of foreign aid, the Southern people appointed 
Messrs. Mason and Slidell' commissioners to those coun- 
tries. Escaping through the blockading squadron, they 
took passage at Havana on the British steamer Trent. 
Captain Wilkes, of the United States steamer San Jacinto^ 
intercepted the Trent, took off the Confederate envoys, 
and brought them back to the United States. This pro- 
duced intense excitement in England. Lincoln, however, 
promptly disavowed the act and returned the prisoners. 

and fi'o, armed bands swept tlirougli the country, plundering and murdering those 
who favored the opposite party. 

1 Tlie Sananiiah was the first priviiteer whicli got to sea, but she was captured 
after having talvcn only one prize. The Petrel, another privateer, bore down upon the 
United States frigate St. Lawrence, which the captain mistook for a merchant ship; 
his vessel was sunk by a single broadside of his forniida))le antagonist. The Beaure- 
gard also was captured, and the operations of other privateers were stopped by the 
blockade within a year. Thereafter Northern commerce was attacked by cruisers 
(p. 300). 



260 THE CIVIL WAR [1861 

General Review of the First Year of the War. — Tlie 
Confederates had seized most of the forts and arsenals in 
the South, including Fort Sumter and the large arsenals 
at Harf)crs Ferry and near Norfolk. They had been suc- 
cessful iu the two great battles of the year — Bull Run and 
Wilsons Creek ; also in several minor engagements. The 
Federals had saved Fort Pickens ' and Fort Monroe, and 
captured the forts at Hattei-as Inlet and Port Royal. They 
had also gained several minor victories. They had saved 
Missouri, Maryland, and western Virginia to the Union. 
Principally, however, they had thrown the whole South 
into a state of siege — the armies on the north and the 
west by land, and the navy on the east by sea, maintaining 
a vigilant blockade. 

COLLATERAL READING 
Bull Kuii. — Schonlcr's Histori/ of the United Slalcn, vol. vi. i»i». 76-81. 

1862 

The Situation. — The Federal armies now numbered 
500,000 ; the Confederate, about 350,000. The Northern 
campaign of 186*2 had three main objects: (1) the opening 
of the Mississippi; (2) the blockade of the Southern ports, 
and (3) the capture of Richmond. 

THE WAR IN THE WEST 

West of the Appalachian Mountains the Confederates 
held a line of defense with strongly fortified posts at 
Columbus, Fort Henry, Fort Don'elson, Bowling Green, 
Mill Springs, and Cumberland Ga^). The Federal army 
acted on the offensive. 

' Tliis fort svaH situated m-ar Pcusacola. Lieutenant Blenimer, sceins tlrnt an attack 
was about to lie made upon liiiii, traustoi-red his men troni Fort McRac, an untenable 
position, to Fort I'ielcens, an almost iiuprefrnable fortllieation, \vlii;'li lie iield until 
reenforeements arrived. 



1862] 



THE WAR IN THE WEST 



?61 



Capture of Forts Henry and Donelson. — Early in Feb- 
ruary, General Grant with an army and Flag Officer 
Foote with his gunboats advanced ui^ou Fort Henry.' A 
bombardment (February 6) from the gunboats reduced the 
place in about an hour. The land troops were to cut off 
the retreat ; but as they did not arrive in time, the garri- 




WAR IN THE WEST, 1862. 

son escaped to Fort Donelson. The fleet now went back 
to the Ohio, and ascended the Cumberland, while Grant 
crossed to cooperate in an attack on Fort Donelson. The 
fight lasted three days.- The fleet was repulsed by the 

1 Though Grant's moveraent \ras the first great blow at the Confederate line, there 
had been an earlier one of considerable importance. In January, General Thomas 
had advanced against Mill Springs, and, on the 19th, defeated the Confederate force 
near that place, with the loss of General ZollicoflFer, a favorite Southern leader. 

-' For four nights of inclement winter weather, amid snow and sleet, with no tents, 
shelter, or tire, and many with no blankets, the hardy Western troops under Grant main- 
tained their position. The wounded suffered intensely, and numbers of them froze to 
death as they lay on the icy ground. 



262 THE CIVIL WAR [1862 

fire from the fort; but Grant, having been reenforced till 
he had nearly 30,000 men, outfought the Confederates. As 
he was about to make the final assault, the fort was sur- 
rendered^ (February IG), with about 15,000 men.- 

Effi'ct of these Victories. — Bowling Green and Columbus, 
the latter deemed* almost impregnable, were now evacu- 
ated by the Confederates, while General Buell at once 
occupied Kashville with a Union army. The Confederates 
fell back to Corinth and Island No. 10,'' and were reen- 
forced. A large Union army ascended the Tennessee to 
Pittsburg Landing. Grant was placed in command, and 
General Buell was ordered to join him. 

Battle of Shiloh (April 6, 7). — Generals Albert Sidney 
Johnston and Beam^egardled the Confederates from Corinth 
in an attempt to rout Grant's army before the arrival of 
Buell. On Sunday morning at daj^light, moving out of the 
woods in line of battle, they suddenly fell on the Union 
camps, which had not been intrenched. The Federals 
slowly yielded, but for twelve hours obstinately disputed 
every inch of the way. At last, pushed to the very brink 
of the river, Gi-ant massed his artillery, and gathered 
about it the fragments of regiments for a final stand. 
The Confederates, to meet them, had to cross a deep 
ravine, where, struggling through the nuid and water, 
they melted away under the fire of cannon and musketry 

1 When General Buckner, comniamler of tlie fort, wrote to Oeneral Grant ofTering 
capitulation, Grant replied : " No terms except iineoiiditioual and imiucdiate surrender 
can be accepted. I propose to move immediately upon your works." Tliis message 
was much quoted, and U. 8. Grant was often said to signify " Unconditional Sur- 
render Grant." 

- West of the Missis.sippi, about this time. General Curtis pushed General Price 
out of Missouri into Arkansas. The Confederates, by preat exertion, increased their 
army to 20,oo(), General Van Born now taking' command. General Curtis, in a des- 
perate battle, totally defeated him at Pea Ridge (March 7, 8). Pome four or five 
thousand Indians had Joined the Confederate army, and took (lart in this battle. 

3 The islands in the Mississippi are numbered in order fnmj the mouth of the Ohio 
to New Orleans. 



1862] 



THE WAR IN THE WEST 



263 



from above and the shells from tlie gunboats beyond. At 
the same time Buell's advance came shouting on the field. 
The tide of battle was already stayed. The Confederates 
fell back. They possessed, however, the substantial fruits 
of victory. They had taken the Union camps, many pris- 
oners, thirty flags, and immense stores ; but they had lost 
their commander, General Albert Sidney Johnston. 

The next morning the tide turned. Part of Buell's 
army had come, and fresh troops were poured on the 




liATU.l-: OF .SIIILUU. 



wearied Confederates. Beauregard, obstinately resisting, 
was driven from the field. He retreated, however, in 
good order, and, unmolested, returned to Corinth. 

General Halleck now assumed command, and by slow 
stages followed the Confederates. Beauregard, finding 
himself outnumbered, evacuated Corinth (May 30). 

Island No. lo. — The Confederates on Island No. 10 and 



264 THK CIVIL WAR • [1862 

tlie neigh boriug shore east of the rivei* wore bombarded 
by Flag Officer Foote for thi*ee weeks with little effect. 
General Pope, crossing the Mississippi, took the batteries 
on the east bank, in the rear of the Confederate posi- 
tion. The garrison on Island No. 10 surrendered to Foote 
(April 7), but most of the Confederates were captured by 
Pope a few hours later. 

The Effects of these battles were soon fully apparent/ 
The Union gunboats moved down the river and (May 10) 
defeated the Confederate ironclad fleet. On the evacua- 
tion of Corinth, Fort Pillow was abandoned by the 
Confederates. The gunboats, proceeding, destroyed the 
Confederate flotilla in front of Memphis, and took posses- 
sion of that city. Kentucky and western Tennessee had 
been wrenched from the Confederacy. The Union army " 
now held a line running from Memphis through Corinth 
nearly to Chattanoo'ga, toward which point General Buell 
was steadily pushing his troops. 

Bragg's Expedition. — Generals Smith '' and Bragg, of the 
Confederates, now took the offensive; they invaded Ken- 
tucky and held large parts of it for several weeks. When 
Bragg began his invasion from Chattanooga, General 
Buell fell back to Nashville, and then hurried to reach the 
Ohio River ahead of the enemy. At Louisville he was 
heavily reenforced, and soon moved out to give battle. 
At Pehryville (October 8) a desperate battle was fought. 

1 Besides tbe results here named, the concentration of troops at Coridth had 
absorbed the troops from the South. Thus New Orleans, as we sliall see hereafter, fell 
an easy prey to Farragut (pp. 266, 267). 

-' General Ilalleck having been called to Wasliington as general in <hief of the 
armies of the United States, General Grant was appointed to the conuuand of this 
army. 

3 Smith moved from Knoxville through the Cumberland Gap, routed a Union force 
under General Manson at Richmond, Ky., inflicting a heavy loss, and tlicn moved 
north as far as Cyuthiaua. There he tbreatened to attack both Cincinnati and 
Louisville. 



1861>] THE WAK IN THE WEST 265 

In the darkness, however, Bragg left the field, and, joined 
by Smith, soon retreated safely by way of Cumberland 
Gap, with wagon trains many miles long. 

Battles of luka and Corinth. — Every one of Grant's vet- 
erans who could possibly be spared had been sent north 
to help Buell. The Confederates Price and Van Dorn, 
taking advantage of the opportunity, wpre maneuvering 
to get possession of Corinth. Grant boldly sent Rosecrans 
to capture Price at luka, but after a severe conflict (Sep- 
tember 19) the latter escaped. Thereupon, the two Con- 
federate generals joined their forces and attacked Rose- 
crans in his iutrenchments at Corinth (October 4). The 
Confederates exhibited brilliant courage, but were defeated 
with heavy loss and pursued forty miles. 

Battle of Murfreesboro (December 31, January 2). — 
Shortly after the battles of Corinth and Perryville, Rose- 
crans superseded Buell, and concentrated his new forces 
at Nashville, Thence he marched to attack Bragg, who 
had established his army at Murfreesboro. Both generals 
formed the same plan' for the approaching contest. As 
the Union left was crossing Stone River to attiick the Con- 
federate right, the strong Confederate left fell heavily on 
the weak Union right, crushing it back on the Union 
center. Here Thomas held firm, and Rosecrans was 
enabled to establish a new line, at right angles with the 
old. Upon this new front the Confederates charged four 
times, but were driven back. The Union left, meanwhile, 
was recalled, and Rosecrans remained on the defensive. 
Two days after, Bragg attacked the Union left, but was 
repulsed, and soon retreated to Tullahoma. This was 

1 The plan was to mass the strenKth on the left, anil with that to fall upon and 
crush the enemy's right. The advantage lay with the army which struck first. Bragg 
secured the initiative, and Eosecrans's only coui'se was to give up all thought of an 
attack and endeavor to save his right from a rout, 

B. HIST. U; S, — 16 



2GG THE CIVIL WAR [1862 

one of the bloodiest contests of the war, the loss l)eing 
about one fourth of the number engaged. Its effect was 
to reduce Bragg's force from an offensive to a defeusive 
attitude. 

First Vicksburg Expedition. — While Rosecrans was 
moving against Bragg, an expedition against Vicksburg 
had been planned by Grant. But, by a brilliant cavalry 
dash, Van Dorn destroyed Grant's depot of sui>plic^ at 
Holly Springs, and thus spoiled the plan. Meanwhile, 
Sherman, under Grant's orders, descended the Mississippi 
to cooperate in the expedition. He made an attack at 
Chickasaw Bluff, north of Vicksburg; but after suffering 
a bloody repulse, and learning of Grant's misfortune, he 
fell back. This campaign was closed by the capture of 
Arkansas Post (January 11, 1863) by a combined army 
and naval force. 

THE war on the SEA AND ON THE COAST 

Capture of New Orleans (April 2.")). — The effort to open 
the Mississippi was not confined to the North. Early in 
the spring Flag Officer Farragut, with a fleet of over forty 
vessels, carrying a land force under General Butler, at- 
tempted the capture of New Orleans. The mortar boats, 
dressed out with leafy branches to render them indistin- 
guishable from the green woods, wore anchored along the 
bank of the river below the city, and threw thirteen-inch 
shells into Forts Jackson and St. Philip for six days and 
nights. Farragut then boldly resolved to carry the fleet 
past these defenses of New Orleans. At about three 
o'clock in the morning (April 24) the gunboats' advanced, 
and poured grape and canister into the forts at short 

' The vessels wero made piirtly iioiulad by looiiiiij: chain cablos in two layers over 
tbeir sides, aud tbeir engiues were protected by bags of saml, coal, etc. 



1862] 



THE WAR ON THE SEA AND ON THE COAST 



;o7 



range, receiving in return heavy volleys from the forts 
and batteries on shore. After running a fearful gantlet 
of shot, shell, and the flames of fire-rafts, 
they next began a desperate struggle X£}1 
with the Confederate fleet of fifteen x^iiy 
vessels, all of which were de- 
stroyed or captured. The 
Union fleet then steamed 
up to New Orleans,^ 
which lay helpless un 
der the Union guns 
The forts, being 




now threatened in 
the rear by the army, 
soon surrendered, and 
New Orleans was occupied 
by General Butler. Flag Of- 
ficer Farragut afterwards ascend- 
ed the river, and, running past the 
batteries at Vicksburg, joined the Union fleet above. 

The Atlantic Coast. — Burnside's expedition against 
Roanoke Island was an important step toward the enforce- 
ment of the blockade. The Confederate forts were cap- 

1 steamers, sailing shipf?, vast quantities of cotton, etc., were now burned to pre- 
vent tbeir falling into Federal hands. Pollard says : " No sooner had the Federal fleet 
turned the point and come within sight of the city, than the work of destruction com- 
menced. Vast columns of smoke darkened the face of heaven and obscured the noon- 
day sun; for five miles along the levee fierce flames darted through the lurid atmos- 
phere. Great ships and steamers wrapped in fire floated down the river, threatening 
the Federal vessels with destruction. Fifteen thousand bales of cotton, worth one 
million and a half of dollars, were consumed. About a dozen large river steamboats, 



268 THE CIVIL WAR [1862 

tured and the ships destroyed.' Then Newborn, Eliza- 
beth City, and Fort Macon, at the entrance to Beaufort 
(l)o'furt) harbor, were taken. Thus most of the North 
Carolina coast, with its intricate network of water com- 
munication, fell into Union hands. 

Port Royal, after its capture (1^61), became the base 
of operations against Florida and Creorgia, resulting in 
the capture of several coast towns. Fort Pulaski, also, 
was reduced after a severe bombardment, and thus the 
port of Savannah was closed. 

At the end of the yenY every city of the Atlantic sea- 
coast, except Savannah, Charleston, and Wilmington, was 
held by the Federal armies. 

The Merrimac and the Monitor. — Early in the afternoon 
of March 8 the long-dreaded ironclad Mcfrlmac'- steamed 
from Norfolk into Hampton Roads. Steering directly 
for the Federal sloop of war CtoithcrlatftJ, whose terrific 
broadsides glanced harmlessly "like so many peas" from 
the Merrimac's iron ro()f, she struck the Cumherlaud 
squarely with her iron beak, making a large hole in the 
ship's side, and thus sinking her.'' Thus warned, the cap- 
tain of the frigate Congress ran his vessel ashore; but the 
Merrimac fired shells into the frigate till the helpless 

twelve or tlftpcn sliips, a grciit floating battery, several niiflnisbed pimboatR, the im- 
mense raiu Misnissippi, and the docks ou the other side of tlio river were all embraced 
In the fiery sacrifice." 

• Roauoke Island, the scene of Raleigh's colonization scheme (p. 4:1), was the key 
to the rear defenses of Norfolk. "It unlocked two sounds, eight rivers, tour canals, 
and two railroads." It afl'orded a convenient station for ships, and exposed a large 
country to attack. 

^ When the United Btates navy yard near Norfolk, Va., was given up (p. 2'i4). 
the steam frigate Mrrrimar, the finest in the service, was scuttled. The Confed- 
erates afterwards raised tliis vessel, razeed the deck, added an iron prow and a sloping 
iron-plated roof, and recliristencd the vessel the Virginia. The ship was commanded 
bj' Commodore Franklin Buchanan, a superior naval officer, 

3 As the f'lntibrrland sank, the crew continued to work their guns until the vessel 
plunged beneath the sea. Her flag was never struck, but floated above the water from 
the masthead after she had gone down. 



1862] THE MERRIMAC AND THE MONITOR 269 

crew were forced to surrender. At sunset the Merrimac 
returned to Norfolk, awaiting, the next day, an easy vic- 
tory over the rest of the Union fleet. That night the 
Monitor^ arrived in Hampton Roads and prepared to 
meet her giant adversary. Early in the morning the 
Merrimac moved toward a Union steam frigate. Sud- 
denly the little Monitor darted out and hurled at the mon- 
ster two 166-pound balls. Startled by the appearance 




MEKlilMAC AND MUNITuH. 

of this unexpected antagonist, the Merrimac poured 
in a broadside such as had destroyed the Congress, but 
the balls rattled harmlessly off the Momtor''s turret and 
deck. Thus began the battle of the iron ships — the 
first of the kind in the world. Close against each other, 

1 This "Yankee clieese-box," as it was nicknamed at the time, was the invention of 
Captain Ericsson. It was a hull, with the deck a few inches above the water, and in 
the center a strong round tower made to revolve slowly by steam power, thus turning 
in any direction the two large guns it contained. The upper part of the hull, which 
was exposed to the enemy's fire, projected several feet beyond the lower part, and was 
made of thick white oak, covered with irou plating Ave inclies thick on the sides and 
one inch on deck. 



270 THE CIVIL WAR [1862 

iron rasping on iron, they exchangecl their heaviest shots. 
Five times the Merrimac tried to run down the Monitor^ 
but her huge beak only grated over the iron deck, while 
the Monitor glided out unharmed. Despairing of doing 
injury to her doughty antagonist, tiie Merrimac now 
steamed back to Norfolk.' 

The Effect of this contest can hardly bo overestimated. 
Had tlie Merrimac triumphed, aided by other iron vessels 
then being prepared by the Confederacy, she might have 
destroyed the rest of the Union fleet in Hampton Roads, 
prevented the Peninsular campaign (see below), swept 
through the shipping at New York, sailed along the coast 
and broken up the blockade, opened tlio way for foreign 
supplies, made an egress for cotton, and jwrhaps secured 
the recognition of the Confederacy by European nations. 
On this battle hinged the fate of the war. 

THE WAR IN THE EAST 

The Peninsular Campaign. — Richmond was the objec- 
tive point in the East. After long delays, it was decided 
to make the advance by way of the peninsula between the 
York and James rivers ; and the Army of the Potomac, 
under McClellan, was carried in transports down the Chesa- 
peake from Washington." Landing at Fort Monroe about 
90,000 strong (April 4 and later), they slowly marched 
toward Yorktown. 

• As the Merrimac drew oflF, she hurled a last shot, which, striking the Monitor's pilot- 
house, broke a bar of iron nine by twelve inches, seriously ityurinir the eyes of the gal- 
laut fonnnander. Lieutenant Wordeu, who was at that nioiueut looking out through a 
narrow slit and directing the movements of his ship. 

- Previous to this (March 10) MeClellnu miule an urtvance toward Manassas, where 
the Confederates had remained intrenched since McDowell's defeat. The fortifica- 
tions, which were evacuated on his approach, were found to be quite insifjnilicant, 
and to lie mounted partly with " Quaker guus," i.e. logs shaped and painted to imitate 
artiller.\-. 



1862] 



THE PENINSULAR CAMPAIGN 



271 



Yorktown and Williamshurg. — At Yorktown General Ma- 
gruder maintained so bold a front along a line thirteen 
miles in length that McClellan was brought to a stop. 
Heavy guns were ordered from Washington, and a siege 
was begun. The garrison, having delayed McClellan a 
month, withdrew just as he was ready to open fire.^ When 
the Confederate movement was discovered, a vigorous 
pursuit was com- 
menced. At Wil- 
liamsburg a long 
fight took place 
with the Confed- 
erate rear guard, 
placed there by 
General Joseph E. 
Johnston to gain 
time for the bag- 
gage train (May 
5). The town 
was evacuated at 

and Mc- 

gradually 

to within 

miles of 



night, 

Clellan 

moved 




- , »-\uiktowliSfe 
v''^-'/ ^i^^w'*' Monroe 



3: 



seven 



WAR IN THE EAST, 1862. 



Richmond. 

Bkhmoml Threatened. — There was a great panic in Rich- 
mond, and the Confederate Congress hastily adjourned, in 
expectation of an immediate attack. But a Confederate 
force at Hanover Court House now threatened MeClel- 



1 On the PTaeuiition of Yorktown,— the Confederate forces being coneentrated for 
the defense of Richmond,— Norfolk was abandoned, the navy yard burned, and the 
Merrimnc, the piide of the South, blown up. United States troops from Fort Monroe 
took possession of the city, and gunboats sailed up the James River almost to Rich- 
mond. At Fort Darling a plunging fire from the blutf forbade further advance. 



272 THE CIVIL WAR [1S()2 

lan's rear, and also his communications with General 
McDowell, who, with 30,000 men, was at Fredericksburg, 
preparing to join liim. McClellan sent part of his army, 
under General Fitz John Porter, to capture Hanover Court 
House. By the time this was done, however, he learned 
that McDowell's army had be(Mi ordered away on other 
duty. This change in the Union plan was caused by 

Jaeksou^s Shcnando'ah Campdif/n. — General Stonewall 
Jackson had been ordered to move down the Shenandoah 
valley and threaten Washington. The Union troops 
under General Banks fell back before his advance, and by 
tremendous exertion succeeded in escaping across the 
Potomac. Great was the consternation in Washington. 
The President took military possession of the railroads. 
The governors of the Northern States were called upon to 
send troops for the defense of the capital. Fremont at 
Franklin, Banks at Williamsport, and McDowell at Fred- 
ericksburg were ordered to capture Jackson. It was high 
time for this dashing leader to be alarmed. He rapidly 
retreated, destroying bridges as he passed. Fremont 
brought him to bay at Cross Keys (June 8), but was 
hurled off. Shields struck at him at Port Republic ' the 
next day, but was driven back -five miles, and Jackson 
then quietly left the Shenandoah valley. With 15,000 men, 
Jackson had absorbed the attention of three major gen- 
erals and 60,000 men, prevented McDowell's junction with 
McClellan, alarmed Washington, and saved Richmond. 

Battle of Fair Oak^ (May 31, June 1).— Meanwhile 

' Wlion a Hiiiall Fcdcriil foico captured tlio brid^'i; over tlio Shenandoiih at Port 
Republic (June 8), Jackson and his staff were cut off from liis army. It is said tliat 
"li(^ rode towiird tlie hridjfc, and, risiujir in his stirrups, <'alled sternly to the Federal 
offlcer commandin.!? the artillery jilaeed to sweep it : ' Who ordered you to post that 
gun there, sir? Brins it over here!' The bewildered officer bowed, limbered up his 
piece, and prepared to move. .Taekson and liis staff seized the lucky moment and 
dasbed across the bridge before the gun could be brought to bear upon them." 



1862] THE PENINSULAR CAMPAIGN 273 

McClellan had pushed his left wing across the Chicka- 
hominy. But a terrible storm flooded the swamps and 
converted the small stream into a broad river. General 
Johnston seized the opportunity to fall with tremendous 
force upon the exposed wing; but General Sumner, 
throwing his men across the tottering bridges over the 
Chickahominy, checked the column which was trying to 
seize the bridges and thus separate the two portions of 
the army. General Johnston was severely wounded. 
The next day the Confederates renewed the attack, but 
were repulsed in great disorder. 

The Union Army Checked. — General Lee,' who now took 
direct command of the Confederate army, was anxious to 
assume the offensive. General Stuart led off (June 12) 
with a bold cavalry raid, in which he seized and burned 
supplies along the railroad in McClellan's rear, made the 
entire circuit of the Union army, and returned to Rich- 
mond in safety. McClellan also meditated an advance, 
and Hooker's division pushed its pickets within sight of 
the Richmond steeples. But now Stonewall Jackson 
appeared near Hanover Court House and threatened the 
Union communications with York River. There was no 
longer any thought of moving on Richmond. McClellan 

1 Robert Edward Lee was born at Stratford, Va., 1807 ; died at Lexington, Va., 1870. 
HiR father was the celebrated Henry Lee, "Light-horse Harry" of Revolutionary 
fame. Robert early showed a love for military life, and during his West Point course 
was devoted to bis studies. In tbe Mexican war ho was Scott's chief engineer, and 
was thrice brevetted fot his services. When Virginia seceded he threw in his fortunes 
with his native State, although Scott had intimated his intention of nominating him as 
his successor. Leo was immediately appointed major general of the Virginia forces, 
and was soon after designated to fortify Richmond. His wonderful success in the 
Seven-Days figlit made "Uncle Robert," as he was familiarly called, the most trusted 
of the Confederate leaders. For three years he baffled every attempt to take Rich- 
mond, which fell only with the government of which it was the capital and the army 
and general that were its defense. General Lee was handsome in face .and figure, a 
graceful rider, grave and silent in deportment —just the bearing to captivate a soldier; 
while his deep piety, truth, sincerity, and honesty won the hearts of all. 



1862J 



THE PENINSULAR CAMPAIGN 



275 



resolved to change his base of supply from the York 
River to the James, involving a dangei'ous flank move- 
ment to his left. 

The Seven Bays^ Battles. — Before this flank movement 
began, Lee, massing his strength on his left, fell upon the 
Union right at Mechanicsville (June 26), but was re- 
pulsed. While the Union army was marching from its 
old position toward the James River, Lee attacked it on 
successive days at Gaines Mill, Savages Station, and 
Fkaysees Farm ; 
but in each case 
the Federals held 
their ground until 
they were ready 
to march on. At 
Malvern Hill 
they took position 
on an elevated 
plateau rising in 
the form of an 
amphitheater, on whose sloping sides were arranged tier 
upon tier of batteries, with gunboats protecting the left. 
Here Lee received so bloody a check (July 1) that he 
pressed the pursuit no farther. The Union troops retired 
undisturbed to Harrisons Landing. 

The Effect of this campaign was a triumph for the Con- 
federates. The Union retreat had been conducted with 
skill, the troops had shown great bravery and steadiness, 
the repulse at Malvern Hill was decided, and Lee had lost 
fully 20,000 men; yet the siege of Richmond had been 
raised, 16,000 of McClellan's men killed, wounded, or cap- 
tured, and immense stores taken or destroyed ; and the 
Union army was now cooped up on the James River, under 



-1 


3 












1 


.'1 


Tt^^gggj 


' ^^^^^^s 


m 




^ 


« 


HH 


w^^ 


^^ 


Ba^E^^S 


f 


P 


W- 


',j 






' 








V- 





GAINES MILL. 



27G THE CIVIL WAU [1862 

the protection of the gunboats. The discouragement in 
the North was as great as after the battle of Bull Run. 
Lincoln called for a le\^ of 300,000 troops. 

Campaign against Pope. — The forces near Washington 
were now united under the command of General Pope. 
McClellan was directed to transport his army to Acqui'a 
Creek, so that it might be united with General Pope's. 
Lee, relieved from all fear for Richmond, immediately 
massed his troops against Pope to crush him before the 
Army of the Potomac could arrive.* Pope being held in 
check by the main army in front, General Jackson was sent 
around Pope's right wing to flank him (August 26). Gen- 
eral Pope, seeing an opportunity while Lee's army was thus 
divided to cut it up in detail, turned upon Jackson. But 
his plans failed, and instead of "bagging" Jackson's divi- 
sion, he was compelled, before all his rei^nforcements had 
arrived, to fight the entire Confederate army on the old 
battlefield of Bull Run. Exhausted, cut off from supplies, 
and overwhelmed by numbers, the shattered remains of 
the Union forces were glad to take refuge within the 
fortifications of Washington.'- 

Thc Effect. — In this brief campaign the Union army lost 
heavily in men, munitions, and supplies. The capital had 
not been in such peril since the war began. 

Invasion of Maryland. — Flushed with success, Lee now 
crossed the l\)toniac and entered Maryland,' hoping to 

I In tbe iiK'iintiiiift Jackson attacked Banks at Ckdar Mountain (Anuust '.•). and 
defeated him after a bloody battle, but, unable to maintain his ]»ositioii, fell baek on 
Lee's advaneiuK army. I'ope, seeing the fearfiU odds against which he was to eontend, 
took post behind the Kappahau'nock. 

•i DuiiDfj; the i)ursnit by Lee's forces an engagement took place at Ciiantii.'i.y (Sep- 
tember 1). It cost the Unicm army two able ollicers, Cenerals Htevens and Kearny. 
The latter especially was devotedly loved Ijy his soldiers. On the l)attletield, bran- 
dishing his sword in his only hand and taking the reins in his teeth, he luid often 
led them in the most de-sperate and irresistible charges. 

> This was September 5, the very day that Bragg entered Kentucky on his great raid. 



1862] INVASION OF MARYLAND 277 

secure volunteers there. McClellan, who had resumed 
command of all the troops near Washington, set out in 
pursuit. On the way he found a copy of Lee's order of 
march, and learned from this that Lee had divided his 
forces, sending part of them to take Harpers Ferry/ 
Overtaking the Confederate rear at South Mountain and 
forcing the passes, the Union army poured into the valley 
beyond. 

Battle of Antietam (September 17). — Lee fell back west 
of Antietam (an te'tam) Creek, and sent off couriers to 
hasten the return of his troops at Harpers Ferry. Fortu- 
nately for him, McClellan delayed his attack a day, and 
in the meantime Jackson arrived. The Union army 
was over 80,000 strong, and the Confederate but half that 
number. The Union right, under Hooker, advanced im- 
petuously, but was repulsed. The struggle was long and 
obstinate. The Union left, under Burnside, advanced too 
late to relieve the pressure on the right. Night ended this 
bloody fight. The morning found neither commander 
ready to assail his opponent. That night Lee retired un- 
molested across the Potomac. Six weeks after, the Union 
army also crossed into Virginia. 

The Effect of this indecisive battle was that of a Union 
victory. The North was saved from invasion, and Wash- 
ington from any danger of attack. Lincoln now issued a 
proclamation to the effect that on the following January 1 
he would declare freedom to the slaves in all States and 
parts of States then in arms against the Union.'-^ 

' These troops, 25,000 strong, -were under Jackson. That redoubtable leader quickly- 
carried the heights which overlook Harpers Ferry, forced Colonel Miles, with 11,000 
men, to surrender, and then hastened back to take part in the approaching contest on 
the Antietam. 

- Lincoln prepared the original draft in the July preceding, when the Union forces 
were in the midst of reverses. Carpenter repeats President Lincoln's words thus : " I 
put the draft of the proclamation aside, waiting for a victory. Well, the next news we 



278 THE CIVIL WAR [1862 

Battle of Fredericksburg. — General dissatisfaction being 
expressed at the slowness with which McClellan pursued 
the retreating army, General Burnside was appointed his 
successor. Crossing the Rappahannock on pontoon 
bridges at Fredericksburg, he stormed the works in the 
rear of the town (December 13). The Confederates, in- 
trenched behind a long stone wall ' and on heights crowned 
with artillery, easily repulsed the repeated assaults of the 
Union troops. Night mercifully put an end to the fruit- 
less sacrifice. The Federal army drew back into the city, 
and two nights after passed quietly across the bridges to 
their old camping ground. 

General Review of the Second Year of the War. — The 
Confederates had gained the victories of Jackson in the 
Shenandoah valley ; of Lee in the Peninsular campaign 
and against Pope; Bragg's great raid in Kentucky; and 
the battles of Fredericksburg and Chickasaw Bluff. 

The Federals had taken Forts Henry, Donelson, Pulaski, 
Macon, Jackson, St. Philip, and Island No. 10 ; had opened 

had was of Pope's disaster at Bull Riiu. Things looked darker than ever. Finally 
came the week of the battle of Antietam. I determined to wait no longer. The news 
came, I think, on Wednesday, that the advantage was on our side. I was then staying 
at the Soldiers' Home. Here I tinished writing the second diaft of the proclamation; 
came up on Saturday ; called the Cabinet together to hear it; and it was imblished the 
following Monday. / made a solemn row before Ood, that if (lencral Lee n-us driren 
back from Maryland I would crown the resiiU by the declaration of freedom to the slaves." 
' Sheltered behind this stone wall at the base of Maryes Heights, the Confederates 
poured a withering Are on their assailants. Six brigades of Federals, Hancock's and 
French's divisions, made the assault with heroic valor, winning much glory even in 
defeat. Under Hancock, the brigades of Zook, Meagher, and Caldwell achieved equal 
distinction with cruel losses. Of the charge of Meagher's Irish brigade, the London 
Times correspondent, an eyewitness, wrote : " Never at Fontenoy, at Albucra, or 
at Waterloo was more undoubted courage displayed by the sons of Krin than dr.ring 
those six frantic dashes which they directed against tlie almost impregmible |>osition 
of their foe. That any mortal men could have carried the i)osition, defended as it was, 
it seems idle to believe. But the bodies which lie in dense masses within forty yards 
of the muzzles of Colonel Walton's guns are the best evidence what niiiiiner of men 
they were who presse 1 on to death with the dauntlessness of a race which lias gained 
elory on a thousand battletields, and never more richly deserved it than at the foot of 
Maryes Heights, December 13, 1862." 



18G2] THE SIOUX WAR 279 

the Mississippi to Vicksburg ; occupied New Orleans, 
Roanoke Island, Newbern, Yorktown, Norfolk, and Mem- 
phis ; gained the battles of Pea Ridge, Williamsburg, Fair 
Oaks, South Mountain, Antietam, Perry ville, luka, Corinth, 
and Murfreesboro; and checked the career of the Merrlmac. 
The marked successes were mainly in the West and along 
the coast ; while in Virginia, as yet, defeats had followed 
victories so soon as to hide their memory. 

The Sioux War. — In the midst of this civil strife the 
Sioux (soo) Indians became dissatisfied with the Indian 
traders, and over the nonpayment of money due them. 
Bands of warriors under Little Crow and other chiefs 
perpetrated horrible massacres in Minnesota, Iowa, and 
Dakota. Over 700 whites were slain and many thousands 
driven from their homes. Colonel Sibley routed the sav- 
ages and took 500 prisoners. Thirty-nine were hanged on 
one scaffold at Mankato, Minn. 

COLLATERAL READING 

The Peninsular Campaign. — Schoiiler's History of the United States, vol. vi. pp. 
188-211. 

1863 

The Situation. — The plan of the war in 1863 was the 
same as in the preceding year, but included also the occu- 
pation of Tennessee. The Federal army was about 700,000 
strong ; the Confederate not more than half that number. 
The Emancipation Proclamation was issued at the open- 
ing of the year. 

THE WAR IN THE WEST 

The Second Expedition against Vicksburg. — Glrant con- 
tinued his gi-eat task of opening the Mississippi. After 
several weeks of fruitless effort against Vicksburg upon 



280 



THE CIVIL WAR 



[1863 



the north, he marched down the west side of the riv^er, 
while the gunboats, running the batteries,' passed below 
the city and ferried the army across. Hastening forward, 
he defeated part of General Pemberton's army at Port 

Gibson (May 1). Learning 
that General Joseph E. 
Johnston was coming to 
Pemberton's assistance, he 
i-apidly pushed between 
them, and defeated John- 
ston at Jackson (May 14). 
Then, turning to the west, 
he drove Pemberton from 
his position at Champion 
Hills (May 1()) and at Big 
Black Eiver (May 17), and 
in twenty days after cross- 
ing the Mississippi shut up 
Pemberton's army within 
the works at Vicksburg. 
Two desperate assaults 
upon these having failed, the Union troops threw up in- 
trenchments and began a siege.- The garrison, worn out 
by forty-seven days of toil in the trenches, surrendered on 
the 4th of July. 

The J\ feet. — This campaign cost the Confederates the 

1 The running of the batteries with transports ivas considered so hazardous that the 
officers would uot order tlieir crews to take the risk, but called tor volunteers. So many 
privates oilered that tliey were compelled to draw lots. The jrantlct of batteries ex- 
tended fourteen miles. The tirst friuilioat crept silently down in the shadow of the 
trees which liucd tln^ bank. The Confederates at Vicksburfi, discoveriuf,' the move- 
ment, kiudled bonfires, which lighted up the whole scene and made the other vessels 
a fair target for their gunners. 

2 Mines and eountennines were now dug. Not one of the garrison could show his 
head above the works without being picked otT by the watchful riflemen. A hat held 
above a porthole iu two minutes was pierced with fifteen balls. Shells reached all 
parts of the city, and the inhabitants burrowed in caves to escape the iron storm. 




10 20 3U 40 50 



WAK IN THE WEST, 1863. 



1863] 



THE WAR IN THE WEST 



281 



cities of Vicksburg and Jackson, 37,000 prisoners, 10,000 
killed and wounded, and immense stores. 

Four days after the fall of Vicksburg, Poet Hudson, 
which had been besieged by General Banks for many 
weeks, surrendered. The Mississippi was now open to the 
Gulf, and the Confederacy was cut in twain.^ One great 
object of the North was accomplished. 



THE WAR IN TENNESSEE AND GEORGIA 

Rosecrans, after the battle of Murfreesboro, made no 
forward movement until June.- With 60,000 men he then 
marched asrainst Brasrsr, and 



T E I -^ ^^N E 



S S 








in two brilliant campaigns 
maneuvered him out of Tul- 
lahoma and (Sept. 8) out of 
Chattanooga. Rosecrans 
pushed on after Bragg, who 
was in full retreat. Bragg, 
however, having received 
powerful reenforcements, 
turned upon his pursuers 
so suddenly that they nar- 
rowly escaped being cut 
up in detail while scattered 

over a distance of forty miles. The Union forces rapidly 
concentrated, and the two armies met on the Chickamauga. 

1 Thereafter the operations west of the river were of minor importance. In Au- 
gust, Quantrell, a noted guerrilla, entered Lawrence, Kan., with 300 men, plundered 
the bank, burned houses, murdered 140 persons, and escaped before a sufficient force 
could be gathered to oppose him. This created greater excitement than many battles. 

2 One objection which Rosecrans opposed to a forward movement was his Inferiority 
in cavalry. This was removed in July, when General John H. Morgan, with about 2.500 
Confederate cavalry, crossed the Ohio River Into Indiana, swept around Cincinnati, 
and struck the river agam opposite West Virginia. During his entire raid he was 
harassed by militia. He was now overtaken by his pursuers, while gunboats in the 
river prevented his crossing. Nearly the entire force was captured. Morgan 

B. HIST. u. s.— 17 



VICINITY OF CHATTANOOGA. 



282 THE CIVIL WAK [1863 

Battle of Chickamauga (September 19, 20). — The first day's 
fight was iucouelusive. About noon of the second day, 
through a mistaken order, a gap was left in the Federal 
line, already weakened from the movement of troops to 
help the left wing, then hard pressed. Longstreet, who was 
moving forward to attack the Federal right with eight 
brigades, swept through the gap and drove most of the 
Federal light and center from the field. The rushing 
crowd of fugitives bore Rosecrans himself away. Ill this 
crisis of the battle all depended on the left, under Thomas. 
If that yielded, the army would be utterly routed. All 
through the long afternoon the entire Confederate army 
surged against it. But Thomas held fast.' At night he 
deliberately withdrew to Rossville, and the next night to 
Chattanooga. The Union army, however, defeated in the 
field, was now shut up in its intrenchments. Bragg held 
the hills near the city, and cut off its principal communi- 
cations. The garrison was threatened with starvation. 

Battle of Chattanooga (November 24, 25). — Grant, hav- 
ing been appointed to command the Mississippi Division, 
hurried to Chattanooga.- Affairs soon wore a ditferent look. 
Hooker, who had come with two corps from the Army 
of the Potomac,^ helped to reestablish communications. 
Sherman's army, on its way from Vicksburg, hastened by 
forced marches the last 200 miles of its journey. Thomas 
made a dash and seized Orchard Knob (November 23). 

escaped, but was finally taken and confined in tbc penitentiary at Coluiulins. Four 
months afterward lie broke jail and reacbed tbe Southern lines in safety. 

1 Thomas was thenceforth styled the "Rock of Chiekauiauga." Ho was in com- 
mand of men as bravo as bimself. 

2 Rosecrans was now relieved, and Thomas put in bis place. Grant, afraid that 
Thomas mifxlit surrender before ho could arrive, telegraphed him lo hold fust. The 
characteristic reply was: "We will hold the town till we starve." 

3 Over 20,000 strong, they were carried by rail from the Rapidan in Vir>rinia to 
Stevenson in Alabama. Ii;i2 miles, in seven days. The Confederates did not know of 
the movement until several days after it had commenced. 



IH63J BATTLE OF CHATTANOOGA 283 

The following day Hookei", advancing from the west, 
easily fought his way around the north end of Lookout 
Mountain/ whereupon the Confederates abandoned their 
impregnable position on the summit.^ The next day 
Hooker advanced on the south of Missionary Ridge. 
Sherman had been heavily pounding away on the north- 
ern flank. Grant, from his position on Orchard Knob, 




FIGHTING FUK THE CREST OF MISSIONARY RIDGE. 

thinking that the Confederate line in front was being 
weakened to repel these attacks on the flanks, felt that 
the critical moment had come, and launched Thomas's 

1 Through the mist that enveloped the mountain, the watchers below caught only 
glimpses of this far-famed "battle above the clouds." 

2 November 24, the Confederate left rested on Lookout Mountain, there 2400 feet 
high ; the right, along Missionary Ridge — so called because, man}- years ago, Chris- 
tian missionaries had Indian schools upon it ; and the center, in the valley be- 
tween. November 25, their army simply occupied Missionary Ridge in front of 
Grant at Orchard Knob. 



284 THE CIVIL WAR [1863 

troops on its center, the orders being to take the rifle pits 
at the foot of Missionary Ridge. These were carried, but 
were found to be untenable on account of the batteries on 
the crest, so the men swept on up the ascent without 
waiting for further orders. Up they went, over rocks 
and chasms, all lines broken, the flags far ahead, each 
surrounded 1)y a group of the bravest. Heedless of the 
tempest hurled upon them, they surmounted the crest, 
captured the guns, and turned them on the retreating foe. 
That night the Union camp fires, glistening along the 
heights about Chattanooga, proclaimed the success of 
this the most brilliant of Grant's achievements and the 
most picturesque of the battles of the war. 

The secure possession of Chattanooga by the Union 
forces gave control of East Tennessee ^ and opened the 
way to the heart of the Confederacy. 

THE. WAR IN THE EAST 

Battle of Chancellorsville (May 2, 3). — Burnside, after 
the defeat at Fredericksburg, was succeeded by General 
Hookei", early in the year 1863. A temporary reduction 
of Lee's force, leaving Lee only 60,000 to oppose to the 
Potomac Army of over 100,000, offered a favorable oppor- 
tunity for an attack. Accordingly, while Sedgwick was 
left to attack Fredericksburg, the main body of Hooker's 
army crossed the Rappahannock some miles above, and 

1 Biirnsido, cx-cominandor of the Army of tlio Potomao, had bfion Bont into EastTon- 
nosKoe, where he captured Knoxvillk (September 2). Wliile Brapfi wasbesiejrinfrChat- 
tanooga, the Confederate President, Daviw, visited liim, and, thiiikins; f'hattanooKa was 
sure to l>e captured, sent Lonsrstrect with his corps to move ajrainst Burnside. I-on>r- 
slreet hIuU np Burnside's force in tlie works at Knoxville, and made a desperate assault 
(November 29), whidi was as heroically repulsed. Meanwhile Grant, immediately 
after his splendid triumph at ChattauooRa, ordered Sherman's troops over terrible 
roads 100 miles to Burnside's relief. On theii- approach, Longstreet withdrew (Decem- 
ber 4) and n ti cated toward Virginia. 



1863] 



THE WAR IN THE EAST 



285 



took position in the Wilderness, near Chancellorsville. 
Lee, relying on the dense woods to conceal his movements, 
risked the perilous plan of dividing his army in the 
presence of a superior enemy. While he remained in 
front, Jackson, by a detour of fifteen miles, got to the 
rear with 20,000 men. 



and, suddenly bursting 
out of the dense woods, 
routed the Union right. 
That night Hooker 
took a new position ; 
but, by constant at- 
tacks through the next 
day, Lee gradually 
forced the Union line 
from the field of battle. 
Meanwhile Sedgwick 
had crossed the Rap- 
pahannock, taken Fred- 
ericksburg, and made war in the east, isgs. 
a diversion in Lee's rear. But after severe fighting he was 
compelled to recross the river. Hooker also decided to 
recross, and did so unmolested. The Army of the Potomac 
was soon back on its old camping ground opposite Fred- 
ericksburg.^ 

Lee's Second Invasion of the North. — Lee, encouraged 
by his success, now determined to carry the war into 
Maryland and Pennsylvania. With the finest army 
the South had ever sent forth, the flower of her troops. 




1 In this battle the South was called to mourn the death of Stonewall Jackson, 
whose magic name was worth to its cause more than an army. In the evening after 
his successful onslaught upon the flank of the Union line, while riding b.ack to camp 
from a reconnoissauce at the front, he was fired upon and mortally wounded by his 
own men, who mistook his escort for Federal cavalry. 



286 THE CIVIL WAR [1863 

carefully equipped and confident of success/ he rapidly 
moved into the Shenandoah valley, crossed the Potomac, 
and advanced into Pennsylvania. The Union army fol- 
lowed a little farther east. 

Battle of Gettysburg (July 1-3).— jP^V.s^ I)ai/.— The 
Confederate advance unexpectedly met the Union cavalry 
near Gettysburg.- Reenforcements came up on both 
sides; but the Federal troops were finally forced back, 
and, becoming entangled in the streets of the village, lost 
many prisoners. All that night the troops kept arriving 
and taking their positions by moonlight, to be ready for 
the contest which they saw was now close at hand.'' 

Second Day. — In the afternoon Longstreet led the first 
grand charge against the Union left, in order to secure 

' The Unitin disasters which had happened sinee the beginuing of the yearciieonraged 
Southern hope that Lei^ Uiight even dictate terms of peaiu' in Phihidelphia or New York. 
Galveston, Tex., which had been seized by the ^"ederals, had liceu retakt^n by General 
Magruder, whereby not only valuable stores had been acquired, but a seaport had 
been opened and the Union cause in Texas depressed. The naval attack on Charles- 
ton had proved a failure (p. 288). An attempt to capture Fort McAllister, near Savannah, 
had met with no success. Kosecrans had made no progress against Bragg. Banks had 
not then taken Port Iludson. Vick.sburg still kept (irant at bay. The Army of the 
Potomac had been checked at Fredericksburg and riiancellorsville, and at one time 
200 soldiers a day were deserting its ranks. The term of service of over forty regi- 
ments had exi)ired, and the strength of the army was now only 80,000. The cost of the 
war was enormous, and a strong peace party had arisen in the North. The draft was 
very uni)opiiliir. Indeed, just after Lee's invasion a riot broke out in New York to 
resist the drafl. Houses were Itnrned, negroes were pursueil in the streets, and, when 
captured, were beaten and even lianged ; for three days the city was a scene of out- 
rage and violence. 

- "Neither general had planne<l to have the fight at this place; Lee had intended 
not to fight at all, except a defensive battle, and Meade proposed t() make the contest 
at Pipe Creek, about tifteen miles southeast from Gettysl)urg. The movement of 
cavalry which brought on this great battle was only a screen to conceal the Union 
army marchiug toward Meade's desired battlefield."— Draper. 

■' The I'nion line was upon a Hshhook-shaped ridge about si.x miles long, with 
Gulps Hill at the barb. Cemetery Ridge along the side, and Little Round Top and 
Round Top, two eminences, at the eye. The Confederate line was on Heniinary Ridge, 
at a distance of about a mile and a half. The Union troops lay behind rock ledges and 
stone walls, while the Confederates were largely hidden in the woods. In the valley 
betw(!en were fields of grain and pastures where cattle were feeding, all unconscious 
of the gathering storm. 



1863] 



BATTLE OF GETTYSBURG 



287 



Little Round Toj). General Sickles, by mistake, had here 
taken a position in front of Meade's intended line of battle. 
The Confederates, far outflanking, swung around him ; 
but, as they reached the top of the hill, thej^ met a brigade 
which Warren had sent just in time to defeat this attempt. 
Sickles was, however, driv^i back to Cemetery Ridge, 
where he stood firm. Ewell, in an attack on the Federal 
right, succeeded in getting a position on Gulps Hill.' 




CONFEDERATK CHARGE, THIRD DAY AT GETTYSBURG. 

Third Day. — At 1 p.m. Lee suddenly opened on Ceme- 
tery Ridge with one hundred and fifty guns. For two 
hours the air was alive with shells." Then the cannonade 
lulled, and out of the woods swept the Confederate battle 
line, over a mile long, and preceded by a cloud of skir- 

' Lee, encouraged by these successes, resolved to continue the fljiht. The Confed- 
erate victories, however, were only apparent. Sickles had been forced into a better 
position than at first, and the one which Meade had intended he should occupy ; while 
Ewell was driven out of the Union works early the next morning. 

■■-' It is customary in battle to demoralize the enemy, before a grand infantry charge, 
by concentrating upon the desired point a tremendous artillery tire. 



288 THE CIVIL WAR [1863 

raishers. A thrill ot' admiration ran along the Union 
ranks as, silently and with disciplined steadiness, that 
magnificent lino of over 12,000 men moved up the slope of 
Cemetery Ridge. A hundred guns tore great gaps in 
their front. Infantry volleys smote their ranks. The 
line was broken, yet they jiushed forward. They planted 
their battle flags on the breastworks. They bayoneted 
the cannoneers at their guns. But no human endurance 
could stand the converging fire of the Federals. Whole 
companies rushed as prisoners into the Union lines, while 
the rest sullenly withdrew.' On the night of July 4, Lee 
retreated. 

The Federal loss in the three days' fight was 23,000; 
the Confederate loss, over 20,000. Meade slowly followed 
Lee, who recrossed the Potomac and took position back 
of the Rapidan. 

The Fjjfed. — This ])attle put an end to Lee's efforts to 
invade the North. It was the turning point of the war. 
From that time the Confederacy waned. Lee's veterans 
who went down in the awful charges of Gettysburg could 
never be replaced. 

THE WAR ON THE SEA AND ON THE COAST 

Attack on Fort Sumter (April 7). — 8uch was the con- 
fidence felt in the ability of the ironclads to resist cannon 
balls that Admiral Dupont attacked Fort Sumter, at the 
entrance to Charleston Harbor, with eight monitors. After 
bombarding it an hour, the fleet withdrew, badly damaged 
by the fire from the Confederate batteries.' General Gill- 

' At tbe very miniioiit wlicn tlic last cliarfio was boin;^ rci>ulHC(l, rfiiiliorton was 
nogotiatinj; for tin: suiroiKlcr of VicksbnrK tn (iraiit. 

-' The A'foA-«/i- sank tlio next day, anil four ntlicr vessels were serionsly injnrod. 
The officers (Icclaretl tliat the strokes of the shots against the iron sides of their ships 
were as rapid as the ticks of a watcii. 



1863] 



THE WAR ON THE SEA AND ON THE COAST 



289 




Cha rleston 

Harbor / Ft MoultiR. 
Ft Sumter N 

s- L A f< D "/.-', ^y-W*- Wagner 



more, landing on Morris Island, by regular siege ap- 
proaches and a terrible bombardment forced the evacua- 
tion of Fort Wagner' and reduced Fort Sumter to a 
shapeless mass of rubbish. 
Two nights later a party 
of sailors from the Union 
fleet essayed to capture it, 
but its garrison, upstarting 
from the ruins, drove them 
back with heavy loss. 

General Review of the 
Third Year of the War.— 
The Confederates had 
gained the great battles of 
Chickamauga and Chan- 
cellorsville, and successfully resisted every attack on 
Charleston. 

The Federals had gained the important battles before 
Vicksburg, and those at Chattanooga and Gettysburg. 
They had captured the garrisons of Vicksburg and Port 
Hudson. The Mississippi was patrolled by Federal gun- 
boats, and the Confederate army was cut off from its 
Western supplies. Arkansas, east Tennessee, and large 
portions of Louisiana, Mississipj)i, and Texas had been 
won for the Union. 





VICINITY OF CHARLESTON HARBOB. 



COLLATERAL READINGS 

Vicksburg.— Schoiiler's History of the United States, vol. vi. pp. 37.5-398. 
The Soldier of the Civil War.— Schouler, vol. vi. pp. 290-316. 



1 Two unsuccessful assaults were made on this fort. In one, tbe first colored re^l- 
raent organized in tbe free States took a prominent part, fighting with unflinching gal- 
lantry. No measure of the war was more bitterly opposed than the project of arming 
tbe negroes. It was denounced in tbe North, and the Confederate Congress passed 
a law which threatened with death any white otflcer captured while in command 
of negro troops, leaving tbe men to be dealt with according to the laws of the State 



290 



THE CIVIL WAR 



[1864 



1864 

The Situation, — In March General Grant was made 
lieutenant general in command of all the forces of the 

United States.' Hereto- 
fore the different armies 
had acted imder generals 
independent of each other. 
Thej" were now to move 
in concert under one gen- 
eral, and thus prevent the 
Confederate forces from 
aiding each other. The 
strength of the South lay 
in the armies of Lee in Vir- 
ginia and Joseph E. John- 
ston " in Georgia. Grant 
was to attack Lee, Sher- 

iu winch tln'.v vcrc taktMi. Yet so will- 
ing were tlic uctrrocs to enlist, anrl so 
faithful (lid tliej- prove theiiiselvos in 
service, that in December, 1863, over 50,000 had been eiinilled, ami before the close of 
the war that number was quadrupled. 

' Before Grant took command, a joint naval and land expedition, under the com- 
mand of General I>anks, was sent up the Red River in the hope of dcstroyiuii: the Con- 
federate authority in that reirion and in Texas. At Saiunk Cuossuoads, La. (.\pril 8, 
1864), the Confederate forces under General Dick Taylor attacked the advance while the 
line of march was greatly extended, and a miniature Bull Run retreat ensued. The 
Union troops, however, rallied at Pi.kasant Hill, and the next day, reenforcements 
coming up from the rear, they were able to repulse the Confederates. The army there- 
upon returned to New Orleans, and Banks was relieved of the command. lie had lost 
5000 men, 18 guns, and large supplies. Besides this, the men employed in the expedi- 
tion were much needed for other work. Part of them had been drawn from northern 
Mississippi and west Tennessee, leaving these regions exposed to ( onlederate attack. 
Forrest captured a number of Union troops in Tennessee, and advanced into Kentucky. 
Later he fell upon Foist Pillow (April 12), which refused to surrender. As his men 
rushed into the fort, they raised the cry "No quarter!" "The Confederate ottieers," 
says Pollard, "lost control of their men. Mho were maddened by the .sight of negro 
troops opposing them," and an indis<u'iminate slaughter followed. 

2 Johnston's army consisted chiefly of the men formerly under Bragg, who was 
superseded soon after the battle of Chattanooga. Johnston was one of the ablest of 




JOSEI'H liGGLKSTON JOHNSTON. 



1864] 



THE WAR IN TENNESSEE AND GEORGIA 



291 



man^ was to attack Johnston, and both were to keep 
steadily at work. Each began his advance early in May. 



THE WAR IN TENNESSEE AND GEORGIA 

Advance upon Atlanta. — Sherman, with 100,000 men, 
moved upon Johnston, who, with nearly 50,000, was 
stationed at Dalton, Ga. The Confederate commander, 
foreseeing this advance, had selected a series of almost 
impregnable positions, one behind another, all the way 
to Atlanta. For 100 miles 
there was continued ma- 
neuvering and skirmishing 
among" mountains and 
woods. Sherman would 
drive Johnston into a 
stronghold, and then with 
consummate skill outflank 
him, when Johnston with 
equal skill would retreat 
to a new post and make 
ready to meet his oppo- 
nent again.^ At Resaca, 

the Confederate generals, as bad been 

shown in the battles of Bull Run and 

Fair Oaks. He was born in Virginia, 

1807 ; died 1891. After graduating from 

the West Point Military Acailemy, he 

served in Indian wars and the war with Mexico, and rose to the rank of cjuartermaster 

general of the United States army. He was wounded in battle ten times. 

1 William Tecumseh Sherman was born in Ohio, 1820; died 1891. He was a West 
Point graduate, but before the outbreak of the war he had retired to civil life. He was 
coiiniiissioned colonel in Mayi, 1861, and commanded a brigade at Bull Run. He was 
then transferred to the West, and fought many battles under Grant. As a general he 
was conspicuous for good judgment, dash, and energy. 

•-' When either party stopped for a day or two, it fortified its front with an abattis of 
felled trees and a ditch with a head-log placed on the embankment. The head-log 
rested on smaU cross-sticks, thus leaving a space of four or five inches between the 
log and the earth, through which the guns could be pointed. 



i 


o 


k •-? 


1 


■\^a^ ««;• ' 


► .' 




iiim#''y'» i 




mm 


fl 


w 


^^^^^1 


^H 


l^^^^w? 


^-. -■ " '--: 


^^^^^F^ 





WILLIAM TECUMSEH SHEKMAN. 



29i 



THE CIVIL WAR 



[1864 



Dallas, and Lost and Kenesaw Mointains, bloody battles 
were fought. Finally Johnston retired to the intrench- 
meuts of Atlanta (July 10). 

Capture of Atlanta. — Davis, dissatisfied with this Fabian 
policy, now put Hood in command. He attacked the 
Union army three times with tremendous energy, but was 
repulsed with great slaughter. 
Thereupon Sherman, repeating 
his favorite flank movement, 
filled his wagons with fif- 
teen days' rations, dex- 
terously shifted his 
whole army on 
Hood's line of 




supplies south of At- 
lanta, and compelled the 
evacuation of the city.* 

The Effect. — This campaign, 
during four months of fighti 
and marching day and night, in 
its ten pitched battles and scores of 
lesser engagements, cost the Union army 30,000 men, 
and the Confederate 35,000. The loss of Atlanta was a se- 
vere blow to the 8outh.'" 

Hood's Invasion of Tennessee. — Hood, with his army, 

' Duriiit; this (•aiiiiiiiifi:n Shemian's supplies were brouKl't up by a sinjLrle liucof rail- 
road from Nashville, a diHtauce of 300 miles, and exposed throujrhout to the atlaeks of 
the- enemy. Yet so carefully was it garrisoned, and so rapidly were bridges built and 
breaks repaired, that the damages were often mended before the news of the aeeident 
reaeh(!d eamp. Rliermaii said that the whistle of the locomotive was frequently heard 
ou the eanjp ground before the echoes of the skirmish tire had died away. 

- (ieorgia was the workshop, storehouse, granary, and arsenal of the Confederacy, 
lu Atlanta and t\w neighboring towns wj^re manufactories, foundries, and mills, where 
clothing, wagons, harnesses, i>owder, balls, am! cannon were furnished to all its 
armies. The Southern supply of these equipmeutu was Ueuceforth greatly reduced. 



.864] THE WAR IN TENNESSEE AND GEORGIA 293 

ioubled around to the railroad in Sherman's rear in north- 
ern Georgia, and the cavalry under Forrest raided Sher- 
nan's communications near Chattanooga and Nashville. 
Sherman first drove Hood away from the railroad, and 
5ent Thomas, with an inferior force, to defend Tennessee, 
rhen, leaving Hood behind him, Sherman returned to 
Atlanta and prepared his army for its celebrated " March 
]o the Sea." 

Battle of Nashville (December 15, 16). — Hood crossed 
;he Tennessee, and General Thomas retired within the 
'ortifications at Nashville. For two weeks little was done.^ 
^Vhen Thomas was fully ready, he suddenly sallied out 
igainst Hood, and in a terrible two days' battle drove the 
Confederate forces out of their intrenchments into head- 
ong flight. The Union cavalry thundered upon their 
leels with remorseless energy. The infantry followed 
ilose behind. The bulk of Hood's army, except the rear 
^uard, which fought bravely to the last, was reduced to a 
'abble of demoralized fugitives. 

The Effect. — For the first time in the war, an army was 
destroyed. The object which Sherman hoped to attain 
iv^hen he moved on Atlanta was accomplished by Thomas, 
500 miles away. Sherman could now go where he pleased 
with, little danger of meeting a powerful foe. The war in 
:he West, so far as any great movements were concerned, 
5vas finished. 

Sherman's March to the Sea. — Breaking loose from his 
3ommunications with Nashville, and burning the city of 
A.tlanta, Sherman started (November 16) with 60,000 
men for the Atlantic coast. The army moved in four 

' Great disappointment was felt in the North over the retreat to Nashville, and 
itill more at Thomas's delay in that city. Grant ordered him to move, and had actii- 
illy started to take charge of his troops in person, when he learned of the splendid 
FJctory his slow but sure general had achieved. 



294 



THE CIVIL WAR 



[18G4 



columus, with a cloud of cavalry under Kilpatrick in 
front. The Georgia Central and Augusta railroads wer^ 
destroyed, and the troops foraged on the country as they 
passed. In five weeks they marched 300 miles, reached 
the sea, stormed Fort McAllister, and occupied Savannah.* 
The Effect of this march can hardly be overestimated. 
A fertile region 60 miles wide and 300 long was desolated ; 




-UKKMAN'S MAKCri. 



300 miles of railroad were destroyed; the eastern portion 
of the already sundered Confederacy was cut in twain; 
immense supplies of provisions were captured, and the 
hardships of war were brought homo to many wlio had 
hitherto been exempt from its actual contact. 



THE WAR IN VIRGINIA 



Battle of the Wilderness (May 5, 6). — The Army of the 
Potomac crossed the Rapidan (May -i), and plunged into 

' Sherman sent the news of its capture, with 25,000 bales of cotton and IJO cannon, to 
President Lincoln, as a Christmas present to the nation. 



1864] 



THE WAR IN VIRGINIA 



295 



the Wilderness, not far from Chancellorsville.' While the 
columns were toiling along the narrow roads, they sud- 
denly found and 



attacked the Con- 
federate army. 
The dense forest 
forbade all strat- 
egy. In those 
gloomy shades, 
dense with smoke, 
this strangest of 
battles, which no 
eye could follow, 
marked only by 
the shouts and 
volleys, now ad- 
vancing, now re- 
ceding, as either 
side gained or 
lost, surged to 




WAR IN VIKGINIA, 1864. 



and fro. The 

third day, both armies remained in their intrenchments. 
Neither side had conquered. It was generally supposed 
that the Federals would recross the E-apidan. Glrant, how- 
ever, quietly gathered up the army and pushed it by the 
Confederate right flank toward Spottsylvania Court House. 
Battle of Spottsylvania (May 8-12).— Lee detected the 
movement, and hurried troops to hold the road, barring 
Grant's progress. Five days of continuous maneuvering" 

1 Meade remained at the head of this Army of the Potomac, but over him was 
Grant, who was generally with it also, and directed all important movements. 

2 DuriiAg this time the sharpshooters on both sides, hidden in the trees, were busy 
picking off officers. On the 9th, General Sedgwick, while superintending the placing 
of a battery in the front, was struck by a bullet and killed. 



1^90 THi; CIVIL WAK [I8C4 

and lighting' having given no advantage, (rrant decided 
to try the favorite movement of the year, and turn Lee's 
riglit flank again.^ 

Battle of Cold Harbor (June 3). — Lee, however, moved 
on inner and shorter lines, and after some maneuvering 
slipped into the intrenchmeuts of Cold Harbor. At day- 
break the Union troops made an assault, only to be beaten 
back with terrible slaughter. Lee's army, sheltered be- 
hind its works, suffered little.^ 

Attack on Petersburg. — Grant now rapidly pushed his 
army over the James, below Richmond, and fell upon 
Petersburg; but here again Lee was ahead, and the works 
could not be forced. Grant, therefore, threw up intrench- 
meuts and sat down in front of the Confederate lines. 
The campaign now resolved itself into a siege of Rich- 
mond, with Petersburg as its advanced post. 

The Effect. — The campaign had cost the Union 54,000 

• On the luorniiij; of the 12th, Hancock's corps, liidden by a dense fog, charged upon 
the Confederate line, broke the abattis, surrounded a division, and took nearly 4000 
prisoners, iucludiuf^ t wo generals. So complete was the surprise that the ollieers were 
captured at breakfast. Lee, however, rallied, and the fighting was so fierce to regain 
this lost position that a " tree eighteen inches in diameter was cut in two by the bullets 
which struck it. Ten thousand men fell on each side." 

2 It was during this fearful battle that Orant sent his famous dispatch : "I purpose to 
fight it out on this line, if it takes all summer." 

•• Grant had arranged for three cooperative movements todi\ide the strength of the 
Confederate army: (l) General Sigel, with 7000 men, was to advance up the Shenandoah 
valley; but ho was routed at Nkw Makkkt (May I.'',). Gen(^ral Hunter, who super- 
seded hiu), defeated the Confederates at Pikdmont (June 6), but pushing on to Lynch- 
burg with about 20,000 men, he found it too strong, and prudently retired into West 
Virginia. (2) On the night that the Amiy of the Potomac crossed the Kapidan, General 
Butler, with 30,000 men, ascended the James Kiver to operate against Kichmond. Put 
after some lighting he was forced back to the peninsula of Bermuda Hundred, where- 
upon Beauregard threw intrenchmeuts across the narrow strip connecting it with the 
mainland. As C;rant tersely said, the Union force was then shut off from any further 
advance "as completely . . , as if it hatl been in a bottle strongly corked." (3) 
General Sheridan, while the armj' was at Spottsylvania, passed in the rear of the Con- 
federate i)osition, destroyed miles of railroad, recaptured 400 prisoners, and defeated a 
cavalry force with the loss of its leader, General J. E. B. Stuart, the best cavalry 
olllccr in the South. 



18G4] 



SIEGE OF KR'HMOND 



297 



men,* and the Confederacy also many thousand. The 
weakened capabilities of the South were now fairly pitted 
against the almost exhaustless resources of the North. 
Grant's plan was to keep constantly hammering Lee's 
army, knowing that it was the chief hope of the Confed- 
eracy. 

The Siege of Richmond continued until the spring cam- 
paign of 18G5. It was marked by two important events: 

1. Mi)2e Explosion (July 30). — From a hidden ravine in 
front of Petersburg, a mine had been dug underneath a 




TIIK rKTERSBURG CRATER. 

strong Confederate fort. Just at dawn the powder blast 
was fired. Several cannon, the garrison of 300 men, and 
huge masses of earth were thrown high in air. The 
Federal guns opened fire at once along the entire line. 

' The above statement of the enormous Federal losses of this campaign is based 
upon the official records of the killed, wounded, and missing. There are no comph'te 
records of the Confederate loss; certain Southern writers put it as low as 19,000, but 
other writers give between 25,000 and 50,000. 
15. HIST. u. s. — 18 



298 THE CIVIL WAR [1864 

All assaultinc: column rushed forward, but stopped in tlie 
crater inoduced by the exph)sioii. The Confederates 
poured shot and shell from every side upon the struggling 
mass of men huddled within the demolished fort. The 
Federals lost about 4000 men in this ill-starred affair. 

2. Attack upon the Weldo)i liailroad (August 18). — By 
threatening Richmond upon the north, Grant induced Lee 
to move troops to that city from Petersbui-g. The oppor- 
tunity was at once seized, and the railroad leading to 
Weldoii, N. C, was captured. Lee, aware of the great im- 
portance of this means of communication with the South, 
for several days made desperate but vain attempts for its 
recovery. 

Early's Raid. — Hunter's retreat (p. 296) having laid open 
the Shenandoah valley, Lee took advantage of it to 
threaten Washington, hoping thus to draw off Grant from 
the siege of Kiehmond. General Early, with 20,000 men, 
accordingly hurried along this oft-traveled route. Defeat- 
ing General Wallace at Monoc'acy River, he appeared before 
Fort Stevens, one of the defenses of Washington (July 11). 
Had he rushed by forced marches, he might have captured 
the city; but he stopped a day. Federal reenforcements 
having now arrived, he retreated, and, laden with booty, 
recrossed the Potomac.^ 

Sheridan's Campaign. — Sheridan was now put in com- 
mand of all the troops in this region. He defeated Early at 
Winchester and Fishers Hill, and in a week destroyed 
half his army, and sent the rest "whirling up the valley." - 
Early was quickly reenforced, and, returning during Sheri- 



1 Later, he sent a party of cavalry into Pennsylvania. They entei-ed Chambers- 
burg, and, on failing to obtain a ransom of |")0(i,000, set flre to the village, and eseaped 
safely back into the Shenandoah valley. 

-In order to prevent any further raids iipim Washington from this direetion, 
Sheridan devastated the valley so thorouglily that it was said : " If a erow wants to fly 
down the Sheuaudoah, he must carry his provisions with hiui." 



1864] THE WAR IN VIRGINIA 299 

dan's absence, surprised his army at Cedar Creek (Octo- 
ber 19), and drove it in confusion. Sheridan arrived at 
this critical moment,^ reformed his ranks, ordered an ad- 
vance, and, attacking the Confederates, now busy plunder- 
ing the captured camp, routed them with great slaughter. 
The Effect. — This campaigu of only a month was one of 
the most brilliant of the war. Sheridan lost 17,000 men, 
but he virtually destroyed Early's army, and there was 
no further attempt to threaten Washington. 

THE WAR ON THE SEA AND ON THE COAST 

The Blockade was now so effectual that the prices of all 
imported goods in the Confederate States were fabulous." 
On account of the enormous profits of a successful voyage, 
foreign merchants were constantly seeking to run the 
gantlet. Their swift steamers, long, narrow, low, of a mud 
color, and making no smoke, occasionally escaped the 
vigilance of the Federal squadron. During the war, it is 

1 Early's attack was made under cover of a dense fog aud the darkness of the early 
morning General Wright, the Union commander, though wounded, remained on the 
field, and managed to get his troops into a new position about seven miles in the rear. 
Sheridan heard the cannonading while riding from Winchester, nearly twenty miles 
from Cedar Creek. Knowing the importance of his iiresence, he put spurs to his coal- 
black steed, and never drew rein for almost twelve miles, when, his horse covered 
with foam, he dashed to the new front. As he passed the fugitives along the road, he 
shouted: "Turn, boys, turn! We're going back." Under the magnetism of his presence, 
the men followed him back to the light and victory. 

'- Flour brought, in Confederate currency, $40 a barrel : calico, $30 a yard : coffee, 
$50 a pound. Dried sage, raspberry, and other leaves were substituted for the costly 
tea. Woolen clothing was scarce, and the army depended largely on captures of the 
ample Federal stores. Pins were so .scarce that they were eagerly picked up in the 
streets. Paper was so expensive that matches could no longer be put in boxes. Sugar, 
butter, and white bi-ead became luxuries even for the wealthy. Salt , being a necessity, 
was economized to the last degree, old pork and fish liarrels being soaked and the 
water evaporated so that not a grain of salt might be wasted. Women wore garments 
that were made of cloth carded, spun, woven, and dyed by their own hands. Large 
thorns were fitted with wax heads and made to serve as hairpins, f^lioes were man- 
ufactured with wooden soles, to which the uppers were attached by means of small 
tacks. 



aOO THE CIVIL WAR [1864 

said, over fifteen hundred blockade runners were taken or 
destroyed. 

Confederate Cruisers had now practically driven the 
American commerce from the ocean. They were not 
privateers, like tliose named on page 259, for they were 
commissioned as regular war ships of the Confederate 
government. They sailed to and fro upon the track of 
American ships, recklessly plundering and burning, or else 
bonding them for heavy sums. 

The Aldhama was the most noted of these steamers. 
Against the urgent remonstrances of the United States 

minister at the British 

A -"i^ ^ court, she was allowed 

/^^^^■^^^^m\ I to sail from England, 

y^^^^^Zy^'^^§^^ where she was built, 

^^/y^^^^f^/^^^ although her mission 

■^^--^l^tWIiftc'^mBrml^ ^^^ y^Q^\ known. An 
^^^^r V^^ ^^^^^^^^ ^ g English captain took 

"~=C=;j;^"' ^^^ ^^Z her to the Azores, where 

English vessels bi'ought 
her arms, ammunition, 
and the Confederate Captain Semmes with additional 
men.' Putting out to sea, he read his commission and 
announced his purpose. After capturing over sixty ves- 
sels, he sailed to Cherbourg, France. While there he 
sent a challenge to Captain Winslow of the Federal ship 
of war Kear'sarr/e. This was accepted, and a battle took 
place off the harbor (June, 1864). The two ships moved 
round in a circular track, pouring broadsides into each 

' Of the other important Contedcrato cruiKcrs, thri'P (the Sfienandonh, Florida, and 
Ornrfjid) were British built, and were eciiiipiicd in much the sauje way as the Alabaino, 
while two (the Sumter and Ttilla/iassee) came from Confederate ports. Several other 
warships were built or equipped for the Confederates in British and French port,««, hut 
were not allowed to sail. 



THE ALABAMA. 



18C4] 



THE WAE ON THE SEA AND ON THE COAST 



301 



other. After the seventh rotation, the Confederate vessel 
surrendered and soon after sank/ 

The Expedition against Mobile Bay (August 5) was 
under the command of Admiral Farragut. That he might 
oversee the battle more distinctly, he took a position in 
the rigging of his flagship, the Hartford. The vessels, 
lashed together in pairs for mutual assistance, in an hour 
fought their way past the Confederate forts and engaged 




FAKRAGC'T IN MOBILE BAY. 



the ironclad fleet beyond. After a desperate resistance, 
the great iron ram Tennessee was taken, and the other 
vessels were captured or put to flight. The forts were 
soon after reduced, and the harbor was thenceforth closed 
to blockade runners." 

I Captain Winslow rescued a part of the sinting crew, and others were picked up, 
at his request, by the Deerhound, an English yacht ; but this vessel steamed oflf to the 
British coast with those she had saved, among whom was Captain Semnies. 

^ The city of Mobile was not captured until the next year (April, 1865). On April 12 
the Union troops, under General Canby, entered the city, ignorant that Lee had sur- 
rendered three days before and that the Confederacy was dead. 



JUL' THE CIVIL WAR [18G4 

The Expedition against Fort Fisher, wliieh det'eiided 
the harhor ol' Wilniiiigton, N. C, was made by a large 
fleet under Commodore Porter, together with a detach- 
ment of the army. Tlie first attempt on the fort having 
failed, the army was j^laced under the command of Gen- 
eral Terry. Protected by a terrible fire from the fleet, a 
column of sailors and one of soldiers worked their way, by 
a series of trenches, within two hundred yards of the fort. 
At the word, the sailors leaped forward on one side and 
the soldiers on another. The sailors were repulsed, ])ut 
the soldiers burst into the fort. The hand-to-hand fight 
within lasted for hours. Late at night, the garrison, 
hemmed in on all sides, surrendered (Januarj^ 15, 18(55). 
One knows not which to admire the more, the gallantry 
of the attack or the heroism of the defense. With the cap- 
ture of Fort Fisher, the last Confederate port was closed. 

The Sanitary Commission and the Christian Commission 
were splendid examples of organized mercy furnished 
by the people of the North. They devised and in-o- 
vided every possible comfort for the sick and wounded, 
besides distributing religious reading to every soldier in 
the field. Ambulances, stretchers, hot cofi^ee, postage 
stamps, paper and envelopes, i:>rayer meetings, medicines. 
Christian burial — every want of body or soul was pro- 
vided for. Homes for men on sick leave, and for those 
not yet under or just out of the care of the government, 
or who had been left by their regiments ; feeding sta- 
tions for the tired and hungry, and even homes for the 
wives, mothers, and children of soldiers who had come 
to visit their sick or wounded, were established. On every 
flag-of-truce boat were placed clothing, medicines, and 
cordials for the prisoners wiio had been exchanged. With 
boundless mercy, they cared for all while living, and gave 



1864] POLITICAL AFFAIKS 303 

Christian burial and marked graves to the dead. Over 
$17,000,000 in money and supplies was expended by these 
two commissions. 

Political Affairs. — In the North there was much dis- 
satisfaction with the conduct of the war. The debt had 
become about $2,000,000,000. In July, 1864, paper money 
reached its greatest depreciation, and it required two 
dollars and ninety cents in greenbacks to buy one dollar 
in gold. This was the time of Grant's repulse from 
Cold Harbor and of Early's raid. Yet, in the midst of 
these discouragements, Abraham Lincoln was renominated 
by the Republican party. George B. McClellan was the 
Democratic candidate; he stood firmly for the prosecution 
of the war and the maintenance of the Union, but was 
not in full sympathy with the policy of the administration. 
He carried only three States. Lincoln had a popular ma- 
jority of over 400,000. 

General Review of the Fourth Year of the War. — The 
Confederates had gained the battles of Sabine Crossroads, 
Bermuda Hundred, Spottsylvania, New Market, Cold Har- 
bor, and Monocacy River ; they had defeated the expedi- 
tions into Florida ' and the Red River country, and yet held 
Grant at bay before Ric^hmond and Petersburg. They had, 
however, lost ground on every side, and every one of the 
Soutliern States had encountered the attack of Union forces. 
The Federals had gained the battles of Resaca, Dallas, 
Kenesaw, Atlanta, Winchester, Fishers Hill, Cedar Creek, 
Nashville, and many others. They had captured Fort 
McAllister and the forts in Mobile harbor, and had 
taken Atlanta and Savannah. Sherman had swept across 

' This expedition was fitted out by General Gilhnore to recover Florida. After 
some snccess, his troops, under (icneral Seymour, advanced to Or>irsTi;i:, where (Feb- 
ruary 20) they met a disastrous defeat and were forced to relinquish nnich they had 
gained. The men were afterwards taken to Virginia to engage in more important work. 



oU4 THK CIVIL WAK [1865 

Cieorgia ; Sheridan had devastated the Shenandoah valley, 
driving its defenders before him ; Thomas had annihilated 
Hood's army ; ( Irant held Lee firmly grasped at Richmond ; 
and the navy swept the entire coast, 

COLLATERAL READING 

Sherman's March to the Sea. — t'clioiilci's Ilislory of the I'uUed Slatrs, vol. vi. 
pp. 546-555. 

1865 

The Situation. — The plan of the campaign was very sim- 
ple. The end of the war was clearly at hand. Sherman 
was to move north from Savannah and then join Grant 
in the final attack upon Lee. Sheridan, with 10,000 
troopers, swept across from the Shenandoah, cut the rail- 
roads north of the James, and took his place in the Union 
lines before Petersburg. Large bodies of Federal cavalry, 
under Wilson and Stoneman, were operating in Al;il)ama 
and western Virginia and North Carolina. 

Sherman's March through the Carolinas. — After a month's 
lest in Savannah, Sherman's troops were put in niotion 
northward early in February. There, was no waiting 
for roads to dry or for l)ridges to be l)uilt, but the ti'oops 
swept on like a tornado. Rivers were waded, and one 
battle was fought on ground that was covered with water. 
The army, about 00,000 strong, moved in four columns, 
with a front of more than fifty miles. Cavalry and fora- 
gers swarmed on the flanks. Before them was terror ; be- 
hind them were ashes. 

Columbia was captured (February 17). That night 
nearly the entire city was burned to the ground. Charles- 
ton, threatened in the rear, was evacuated the next day. 
Then there were fierce battles at Averysboro and Benton- 
viLLE, ■ where the Confederates were commanded by 



1865] 



THE WAR IN THE EAST 



305 



Johnston.^ Sherman next pressed forward to Goldsboro, in 

order to join Schofield, who had made his way thither from 

Newbern, and Terry, who had come np from Wilmington. 

Soon the three armies united, and 100,000 men upheld the 

flag of the Union 

along the banks of 

theNeuse.^ Sherman 

then M^ent to City 

Point, to arrange 

with Grant the plan 

of the final struggle. 




Siege of Richmond. — 

Lee's position was fast be- 
coming desperate. His 
only hope lay in getting 
out of Richmond and join- 
ing Johnston. Their united armies might prolong the 
struggle. Grant was determined to prevent this and com- 
pel Lee to surrendei-,' as he had forced Pemberton to do. 

1 This Confederate army, about 20,000 strong, was made up of the remnant of Hood's 
army, troops that had been defending Savannah and other towns, and State militia. 

2 The distance traversed by the army in going from Savannah to Goldsboro was 
about 425 miles. The country was generally wild and swampy. To make the mud 
roads passable, each column " corduroyed " with rails and logs over 100 miles, besides 
building bridges across the many streams and rivers. Yet, in fifty days after breaking 
camp upon the Savannah, the troops bivouacked upon the Neuse. 

» Lee decided to attack Grant's line in order to hide his plan of retreat, and espe- 
cially in the hope that Grant would send troops from the left to succor the threatened 



30(3 THE CIVIL WAK [1865 

Battle of Five Forks (April 1). — The final movement 
began Wednesday morning, March 29. Sheridan, with 
his cavalry — 0000 sabers — and heavy columns of infantry, 
pushed out from Grant's left wing to get around in Lee's 
rear. At Five Forks the Confederate force was over- 
whelmed, all their artillery captured, and more than 5000 
men taken prisoners. Lee's position was now untenable. 
His right was turned and his rear threatened. 

Capture of Petersburg and Richmond (April 2, 3). — The 
next morning, at four o'clock, the Union army advanced 
in an overwhelming assault along the whole front. By 
noon the Confederate line of intrenchments, before which 
the Army of the Potomac had lain so long, was broken, 
and thousands of prisoners were captured. That night 
Petersburg and Richmond were evacuated. The next 
morning the Union troops took possession of the Con- 
federate capital, tlie coveted goal of the Army of the 
Potomac for four long bloody years. 

Lee's Surrender. — Meanwhile Lee, having only the 
wreck of that proud array with which he had dealt the 
Union army so many crushing blows, hurried west, seek- 
ing some avenue of escape. Grant urged the pursuit with 
untiring energy. Food now failed the Confederates, and 
many could get only the young shoots of trees to eat. If 
they sought a moment's repose, they were awakened by 
the clatter of pursuing cavalry. Lee, like a hunted fox, 
turned hither and thither ; but at last Sheridan in strong 
force planted himself squarely across the front. Lee made 

point. In that case lio would slip out, with tho main body of his army, by the nearest 
road southward, which ran close by the Union left. Fonr 8tedman was assaulted and 
captured, but was at once retaken by the Federals (March 25). Of the attacking force 
about 3000 were lost. To make matters worse, a I'nion assault followed directly after- 
wards, and a portion of the Confederate outer defenses w.is captured. Thus Grant's 
frrip was only tiiclitened. He had made no chance in the position of his troops, and 
this sortie neither hastened nor delayed the final attack. 



18G5] 



LEE'S SURRENDER 



307 



ready for battle, and the Civil War seemed about to end 
in one of its bloodiest tragedies, when the Confederate 
advance was stopped. General Grant had already sent in 
a note demanding the surrender of the army. Lee ac- 
cepted the terms ; ' and in the afternoon of April 9 the 
remains of the Army of Virginia laid down their arms 




A1!1!AN(;ING I.EK'S SI'RIiK.NnEK. 



near Appomattox Court House, and then turned home- 
ward, no longer Confederate soldiers, but American 
citizens. 



1 The oflBcers and men were allowed to go home on their paroles not to take up 
arras against the United States until exchanged, and the former were to retain their 
private baggage and horses. Alter the surrender had been concluded, General Lee 
said that he had forgotten to mention that many of his soldiers rode their own horses. 
Grant at once replied that such should keep their horses to aid them in their future 
work at home. The two armies so tiercelj" opposed for four years parted with words 
of sympathy and respect — an assured presage of a day when all the wounds of the 
cruel war should be fully healed. The Federal authorities state that 28,356 officers and 
men were paroled at Appomattox Court House and 22,633 small arms were given up. 
The Confederate accounts, however, place the men and arms surrendered at a much 
less number. The total number i>aroled from all the Confederate armies was 174,223. 



308 THE CIVIL WAR [1865 

Tlie EfecL— This closed the war. The other Confed- 
erate armies promptly surrendered, that nndei-Johnston on 
April 2(i, near Kalei<Jil), N. C Jefferson Davis tied south- 
ward, hopin*>' to escape, but was overtaken in Georgia 
(May 10), and sent a })risoncr to Fort Monroe. 

Results of the War. — Besides doominj^ slavery, this war 
settled forever tlie (picstion of "State rights." The doc- 
trines of nullification and secession were dead. The arbit- 
rament of tlie sword Imd decided that no State, having 
once joined the Union, can ever secede. The rights of 
the States as defined in the United States Constitution 
remained as sacred as ever; but it was settled for all time 
tliat the Ignited States is one nation, rather than a league 
of sovereign states. 

Cost of the War. — In the Union ai-mies, over 300,000 
men were killed in battle or died of wounds or disease, 
and 200,000 more were crippled for life. If the Confed- 
erate armies suffered as heavily, the country thus lost 
1,000,000 able-bodied men. The Union debt, when largest 
(August .')1, 1SG5), was in round numbers i|>2,845,000,()0(): - 
but this was far from representing the entire expense of 
the war.^ Tlie Confederate war debts were never paid, as 
that government was overthrown. 

Assassination of Lincoln.— In the midst of the uni- 
versal rejoicings over the advent of peace, on the evening 

'Thelast fl^lit of the war happened near Brazos Santiajro, Tpx., May 13. A small 
expedition sent out to Riirpriso a Confcdorate camp was overtakeu, on its roturu, by a 
larfjicr force, and di'tVatcd with a loss of 80 men. 

'■iTlic interest -bear i II y debt (bonds and notes) was $2,382,000,000; beginning with 1866, 
this was rednccd year by year until in 1893 it was only $585,000,000. In 1900 it was 
$1,023,000,000. The non-interestbearing debt in 1865 consisted chiefly of greenbacks 
(United States notes), which had been made legal tender and thus forced into circula- 
tion as paper money, to the extent of $449,000,000. .some of these notes which were 
paid into the United States treasury were canceled and destroyed, but this cancella- 
tion was stopped in 1878, and ever since the amount of these notes has been $346,681 ,010. 

3 States and cities gave millions toward the expense of the war, and the national 
government raised large sums by many kinds of taxation. 



1865] NEW STATES 309 

of April 14 the intelligence was flashed over the country 
that Lincoln had been assassinated/ While seated with 
his wife and friends in his box at Ford's Theater, he was 
shot by John Wilkes Booth," who insanely imagined he 
was ridding his country of a tyrant. The stricken Presi- 
dent was carried to a private house near by, where, ai'ound 
his uncons<nous body, gathered the most prominent men 
of the nation, who mourned and watched, waiting in vain 
for some sign of recognition, until the next morning, when 
he died.^ 

NEW STATES (i 861-1865) 

Wfst Virginia, the thirty-fifth State, was admitteil to the Union June 19, 1863. This 
western part of the old State of Virginia was strongly opposed to the ordiuance of 
secession adopted by the convention of that State. The people there who were in 
favor of the Union set up a government which was recognized by the Federal author- 
ities as the government of Virginia, although it controlled only the smaller part of 
the State. It was the legislature of this "Restored Government of Virginia" which 
gave consent to the formation of the new State of West Virginia,, as required by the 
United States Constitution in the case of any new State formed by the (li\isiou of an 
old one. 

Nevada, the thirty-sixth State, was admitted to the Union October 31, 1804. It is 
part of the tem-itory ceded by Mexico. Its first settlement was at Carson City. Nevada 
Territory was foruied, in 1861, from pail of the original Territory of Utah. Two years 
after its admission as a State, its area was increased by additions on the east and 
south. 

' A nearly fatal attempt was also made at tiu^ same time upon William II. Seward, 
Secretary of State, who was lying sick in his bed at hom<'. 

'i Booth stealthily entered the box, fastened the door, that he might not I)e followed, 
shot the President, then, waving his jjistol, shouted, "Sic semper tyrannis" (So be it 
always to tyrants), and leaped to the stage in front. As he jumped, the American 
flag draped before the box — m ute avenger of the nation's chief — caught his spur, and, 
throwing him heavily, broke his leg. In the confusion, however, the assassin escaped, 
mounted a horse waiting lor him, and fled. He was at length overtaken in a barn in 
Virginia, aud was shot while resisting arrest. His accomplices wei'o arrested, fried, 
and convicted. Four were hanged ; three were condemned to imprisonment for life ; 
and one was sentenced for sis years. 

* The funeral was held on the 19th. It was a day of mourning throughout the land. 
In most of the cities and towns funeral orations were pronounced. The body was 
home to Springfield over the same route along which Lincoln had come as President- 
elect to Washington. The procession may be said to have extended the entire dis- 
tance. The churches, principal buildings, and even the engines and cars were draped 
in black. Almost every citizen wore the badge of raoumiiig. 



310 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS 



Inauguration of Lincoln. 
Condition of tlie Country. 
Capture of Fort Sumter. 

f a. Capture of Arlington Heights and Alexandria. 
6. Battle of Big Bethel. 

c. campaign in western Virginia { «; '^'^^-J, ^1^!^ 

d. Battle of Bull Hun. 

e. Bulls BIuH; 



•1. War ill the East. 



War in tlie West. 
War on the Sea and 
on the Coast. 

General Review of the First Year of the War. 

The Situation. 



i a. Privateers. 
\ h. Naval KxiM 
t c. Trent Atlai 



2. War ill the West. 



War on the Sea and 
on the Coast. 



4. War in the East. 



a. The Situation. 

h. Capliirr cil Fort.'; Henry and Dunelson. 

c Bnllle c.( Shiloli. 

d. Capture' of Ifilniiii No. 10. i' a. Smith's Invation. 

c. HriiKg's Keutuekv Kxpedition. < h. Brni/g's Inraxiim. 
f. Battles of luka and Corinth. ( c. BatUe of Perryvillt. 
(J. Battle of MurlVeeshoro. 

* I'irsl Vii kaliurg Kxpedition. 

a. Capture of New Orleans. 

b. Burnside's Kxpedition. 

r. Florida and Georgia Kxpcditions. 

d. Merrimac and Miuiitor. 



a. The Peninsular Campaign. 



b. Campaign against Pope 



c. Invasiiui of Maryland. 



a. Sifgr of Torktotcn . 

b. Sa'ltle 0/ WiUiamtburg. 
C. HirhmonrI ThrrnUutd. 

d. Shtnaudoati Vtimjiaign. 

e. Battle of Fiiir Oakt. 

f. rnioti Army Checked, 

g. Seven Days* Battles, 
'ititation. 



d. Battle of Fredericksburg. 

5. General Review of the Second Year of the War. 

1. The Situation. 

2. S--Cond Expedition < <?■ Movement, against Pcmberton. 

against Vieksliurg. 

3. War ill Tennessee and 

Oet)rgia. 

4. War in the East. 

."i. War on the Sea and on the Coast. 

G. General Review of tlie Third Year of the War. 

1. Tlie Situation. 

2. War in Tennessee and 

Georgia. 



f a. The Situati 
< b. Lee'g Plan. 
i c. Second Ball 
C a. 

n. 



itlle of Bull Run. 
a. Battle of South Moitntain. 
Capture of Harpers Ferry. 
Battle of Antietam. 



C a. Movement against P< 
< b. Defeat of rlohnstnn. 
I c. Siege of Vicksburg. 



The Situation. 

Battle of Chiekaniauga. 

Battle ofCliHttanooga. 

a. Rattle orclmTicellorsvilli- 

ft. Lee's Sieonil Invasion of 



a Lee's Plan. 

h. Hallle of Ueltysburg. 



3. War in Virginia. 



C a. Advance upon Atlanta. 

J ft. Capture of Atlanta 

) c. Hood's Invasion of Tennessee. 

^ d. Sherman's March to the .Sea. 

a. Buttle of the Wilderness. 

ft. Bnllle of Sp(itt.sylvania. 

c. Battle of Cold llurhor. , 

rf. Attack on Petersburg. j 



e. The Situation. 

h. Grant's Plan. 

a .Vine Frjilosion. 

i>. Attack upon the Weldon Railroad. 



5. 
6. 

1. 



War on the Sea and 
on the Coast. 



Siege of Richmond. 



e. Siege of Kiclnnoinl. 
/. Early's Itaid. 

. if. Sheridan's Campaign In the Shenandoah Valley 
a. The Blockade, 
ft. Confederute Cruisers. 
c. Expedition auBinst Mobile Bay. 
■ Expedition against Fort Fisher. 

The Sanitary and Christian Commissions. 

Politieal Affairs in the North. 

General Review of the Fourth Year of the War. 

The Situation. 

Sherman's March through the Carolinas. 

I.ee'a Hope and Grant's Plan. 

Battle of Five Forks 

Capture of PetersburE and Kichmond. 



n 



T,ee's Surrender. 
Results of the War. 
Cost "f the War. 
Assassination of Lincoln. 
New States. 



EPOCH YI.— DEVELOPMENT OF THE 
NATION (since 1865) 

This epoch, begins with the nation exhausted by civil 
war, but freed at last from the nightmare of disunion. 
The awakened power of the Noi'th quickly turns to an 
industrial expansion surpassing the wildest dreams. The 
South, crushed by defeat and devastation, has first to 
restore her ruins and accustom herself to the new system 
of free labor and f reedmen's rights. Yet within a genera- 
tion the reunited sections are advancing with even pace. 
The farther West now quickly grows to maturity. Indian 
reservations are reduced to smaller compass. Before the 
end of the century, however, nearly all the tillable public 
land is occupied ; the nation looks abroad for an outlet to 
its surplus energy, and takes its place among the world 
powers in the larger politics of the globe. 

The Civil War left many questions to be settled in this 
epoch. What was the political status of the late seceded 
States, and how should they resume their places in the 
Union ? What rights should be given to the emancipated 
negro ? What was to be done with the greenbacks, which 
for a long time formed the chief money ^ in circulation? 



' Besides these United States notes, there were also in circulation— as there are 
still— many national banknotes; that is, notes issued by banks established under 
laws passed by Congress in 18G4 and later. In 1865 Congress put an end to State bank- 
notes by levying a tax of ten per cent on their circulation. The national banks 
deposit United States bonds in the national treasury to secure the payment of the bank- 
notes, and their payment is guaranteed by the national government. 

311 



[iV2 JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION [1865 

Tlie great iiulustriul expansion also created many prob- 
lems, or gav^e new life to old ones. During tlie war the 
tariff duties oli imports had been largely extended and 
increased in the ett'ort to raise all possible revenue. Now, 
with the growth of our manufactures and trade, vast 
interests were affected by the tariff question: should the 
duties be kept high to increase the profits of the producer, 
or should they be lowered so as to lessen the cost of goods 
to the consumer? Vast interests also were involved in 
the money question : should the dollar of commerce mean, 
ultimately, a certain amount of gold, or the debtor's choice 
between that amount of gold and a certain amount of 
silver, or merely a x>aper greenback? A^ast interests also 
were involved in the relations between labor and capital. 
As the short railroads. of earlier days werie, under the lash 
of competition, joined into trunk systems, and as similar 
unions of com])anies and corporations took place in va- 
rious branches of manufacture, so, step l)y step, the trades 
unions of laborers were combined in a more thorough 
organization. Conflicts between organized labor and or- 
ganized capital became widespread and disastrous : how 
should such injury be avoided ? 

We shall find in this epoch that some of the problems 
have been solved, but that others remain to tax the wisdom 
of the statesman and prove the patriotism of the citizen. 

JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION (1865-1869) ^ 

The death of Lincoln produced no disoi-der, and within 
three hours thereafter the Vice President, Andrew John- 
son, quietly assumed the duties of the presidency. 

1 Andrew Johnson was bom in Raleish. N. C, 1808; rtied 1875. Wlaen ten years old 
ho was apprenticed to a tailor. Xever havins lioen at school, he yet determined to 
secure an education. From a fellow-worliman he learned the alphabet, and from a 



1865J DOMESTIC APPAIES 313 

Disbanding of the Army. — At the close of the war the 
Union army numbered 1,000,000 soldiers. Within six 
months they had nearly all returned home. Thus the 
mightiest host ever called to the field by a republic went 
back without disturbance to the tranquil pursuits of civil 
life. Other nations prophesied that such a vast army 
could not be disbanded peaceably. The republic, by this 
final triumph of law and order, proved itself the most 
stable government in the world.' 

Domestic Affairs. — Reconstruction Policy of the Presi- 
dent. — Johnson recognized the State governments that, 
during the war, had been formed in Virginia, Tennessee, 
Arkansas, and Louisiana, under the protection of the 
Union army. In the other States he appointed provisional 
governors, and authorized the calling of conventions to 
form loyal governments. These conventions accordingly 
met, repealed the ordinances of secession, repudiated the 
Confederate war debt, and ratified a thirteenth amend- 
ment to the Constitution (abolishing slavery), which Con- 
gress had offered early in 1865. This done, Johnson 
claimed that the States, having never been legally out of 
the Union, should be restored to their rights in the Union. 
He also issued a proclamation of pardon to those who had 

friend aometlilug of spelling. Thenceforth, after working from ten to twelve hours' a 
day at his trade, he spent two or three hours every night in study. In 1826 he went west 
to seek his fortune, with true filial aflfection carrying with him his mother, who was 
dependent on his labor for suiiport. After his marriage at Greeneville, Tenn., he con- 
tinued his studies under the instruction- of his wife, pursuing his trade as before by 
day. His political life began vrith his election as alderman. He was successively 
chosen mayor, member of legislature State senator, congressman, governor, United 
States senator, and Vice President. 

1 A grand review of the armies of Grant and Sherman, 200,000 strong, took place in 
the presence of the President and his cabinet. For twelve hours this triumphal pro- 
cession, thirty miles long, massed in solid column twenty men deep, marclied through 
the broad avenues of the capital. Many of the Federal soldiers and sailors soon 
afterwards formed the society called the Grand Army of the Republic, which exerted 
a great influence in fostering the spirit of patriotism, 
li. HIST. ti. s.— 19 



314 JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION [1865 

engaged in sooession, except certain classes,' on the condi- 
tion ol" taking the oath of allegiance to the United States. 

TJw, Tliirtrcnth Amendment, abolishing slavery, having 
thus been ratified by the requisite number of States, was 
declared (Deceinl)er 18, 1865) duly adopted as a part of 
the Constitution of the United States. 

Reconstruction Policy of Congress. — When Congress met 
(December, 1865), it took decided gi'ound against the 
policy of the President. It refused to admit the senators 
and representatives from the eleven seceded States, and 
prescribed new conditions for the readmission of these 
States, among them the ratification of a fourteenth amend- 
ment to the Constitution (guaranteeing equal civil rights 
to all). The Civil Rights, Freedmen's Bureau, and Tenure 
of Office bills'" were all passed over the President's veto. 

Seceded States Admitted. — Tennessee promptly ratified 
the Fourteenth Amendment, as Congress required, and 
was restored to her former position in the Union (180(1). 
The other ten provisional governments having refused to 
do so, a bill was passed placing those States under mili- 
tary rule. The generals in command caused a registry of 
voters to be made and elections to be held for conventions 
to remodel the State constitutions. After a bitter and 
protracted struggle, new governments were established in 
Arkansas, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, and North 
and South Carolina,'' and their representatives were ad- 

' Many of the persons thus excluded obtained pardons from the President by 
personal application. One coniidaint against him was the readiness with whidi he 
granted such pardons. 

-' The llrst bill guaranteed to the negroes the civil rights of citizenshij). Under the 
provisions of the second bill, national officers cared for and protected the freedmen, i.e. 
the emancipated slaves, and also the destitute whites in the South. The third bill 
made the consent of the Senate necessary to the removal by the President of any per- 
son from a civil office; this act was modified in 18(59 and repealed in 1887. 

^ As a requisite demanded by Congress for holding office, every candidate waa 
obliged to swear that he had not participated in the secessiou movement. Since few 



1868] DOMESTIC AFFAIKS .315 

mitted to Congress (1868), over the President's veto, after 
an unrepresented period of seven years/ 

Impeachiuent of the President. — The constantly increas- 
ing hostihty between the President and Congress came to 
an issue when the former attempted to remove Edwin M. 
Stanton, Secretary of War. This being considered a vio- 
lation of the Tenure of Office Act, the impeachment of the 
President was at last ordered (1868). After a tedious 
trial he was acquitted, the two-thirds majority in the 
Senate necessary for conviction lacking one vote. 

The Fourteenth Amendment (declared adopted July 28, 
1868) guaranteed equal civil rights to all, regardless of race 
or color, and provided for reducing the representation in 
Congress of such States as should deny the suffrage to any 
of their male citizens twenty-one years of age." 

New State admitted — Nebraska (p. 359). 

Foreign Affairs. — The French in Mexico. — While the 
United States was absorbed in the Civil War, Napoleon 
III., emperor of France, took advantage of the opportu- 
nity to secure a foothold in America. By the assistance 
of the French army, the imperialists of Mexico defeated 

Southerners could take tliis " ironclad oath," as it was termed, and since the negroes 
■were now allowed to vote, most of the otticeholders were either negroes or Northern 
men who had gone south after the war, and were, therefore, called "carpet-baggers." 
Under the rule of these men, in several Southern States, taxes were heavily increased, 
much pulilic money was spent foolishly or stolen, and the State debts were increased 
by many millions of dollars for which the people received little or no benefit. 

' Georgia was soon accused of trying to evade the conditions of her restoration to 
the Union, and her representatives were again excluded from Congress. Virginia, 
Mississippi, Texas, and Georgia were finally readmitted in 1870. 

-Except for "participation in rebellion or other crime." The intention was to 
secure negro suffrage by making it to the political interest of the States to allow every 
man to vote; see also the Fifteenth Amendment (p. 319). Nevertlieless, since 1890, 
several Southern States have amended their constitutions so as to exclude from voting, 
with some exceptions, those who can not read and write, or wlio do not pay a certain 
tax ; and a few Northern States also impose educational orother fiualificationson their 
voters. By these restrictions many negroes and some others are denied the suflFrage; 
but Congress has not applied the Fourteenth Amendment to any of these cases. 



olO JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION [1S()7 

tho liberals, and Maximilian, archduke of Austria, was 
chosen emperor. In accordance with tlie Monroe Doctrine, 
the United States considered this an unfriendly act on the 
part of France. When our government was relieved from 
the pressure of civil strife, it demanded of Napoleon the 
recall of the French troops, and Napoleon recalled them. 
Maximilian, deprived of foreign aid, was defeated, cap- 
tured, and (June 19, 1867) shot by the Mexican liberals. 
Thusendedthedreamof French dominion on this continent. 

Laying of the Atlantic Cable. — While these great politi- 
cal events were happening, science achieved a p(^aceful 
triumph whose importance far transcended the victories 
of diplomatic or military skill. A telegraphic cable 18()4 
miles in hmgth was laid from Yalentia Bay, in Ireland, 
to Heart's Content, Newfoundland.' The two continents 
were thus brought into almost instant communication. 

Piinhase of Alaska (1867). — Through the diplomacy of 
William H. Seward, Seci'etary of State, Alaska (p. 349) 
was purchased of Russia for $7,200,000 in gold. Later 
(1884) it was organized as a civil and judicial district. 

Treat}! irifh China (1868). — An embassy from the 
Chinese Empire, under the charge of Anson Burlingame, 
American ambassador to China, visited the United States. 
It was the first event of its kind in the history of that 

' The success of this enterprise was due to the enerpry of Cyrus \V. Field. In 1856 
tlie line was linished from New York to St. Johns, Xewfouudlaud, a distance of over 
looo miles. Then, in Itiss, after repeated failures, a cable was laid across the Atlantic. 
But after a few njesaages had been sent by it, the cable ceased to work. The time and 
money spent seemed a total loss. Mr. Field alone was undismayed. The company 
Wiis revived, $:i,00(),0(tO was subscribed, and a new cable was njauufactnred. In .Tuly, 
1805, the Oreat Knsln-ii befi:an laying this cable, but in mid-ocean it parted and sank to 
the bottom. Again Mr. Field rai.seda new company, and made n third calile. The Oreul 
Kastrrii sailed with this in .lune, 1866, and successfully laid it. The vessel then sailed 
back to thesiiot where the cable of 1865 had parted, found the lost cable, brought it to 
the surface, and, splicing it, laid the remaining portion. The two cal)les were found 
to wiii'k admirably. A dispatch h,%s been sent across the oceau by a battery made in a 
yuu cap. yiuce tliat time many other oceau cables have been laid. 



1868] POLITICAL PARTIES 317 

exclusive nation. A treaty was perfected, granting to us 
valuable commercial privileges. 

Political Parties. — The Republican party nominated 
General Ulysses S. Grant for President. The Democratic 
party nominated Horatio Seymour, ex-governor of New 
York. The " reconstruction " of Virginia, Mississippi, and 
Texas not yet being complete, these States were not 
allowed to vote. Grant was elected. 

GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION (1869-1877)^ 

Domestic Affairs.— 7Vfr//?V' Bailroads. — The year 1869 
was made memorable by the opening of the first Pacific 
railroad, connecting Omaha and Sacramento. This great 
highway linked the West to the East by iron bands, car- 
ried thousands of pioneers into the hitherto wild country 
along its course, developed fresh sources of industry and 
mines of wealth, and opened a new route for the silks, 
teas, and spices of Asia. The next year the Northern 
Pacific Railroad, from St. Paul and Lake Superior to Puget 
Sound, was begun ; and as it progressed to completion 
thousands of people moved to new homes along its route. 
The government gave millions of acres of public land to 
these railroads. Other millions of acres were sold for 

' Hiram Ulysses Grant was boru at Point Pleasant, Ohio, April 27, 1822 ; died 1885. 
He was unwilling to follow his father's trade, that of a tanner, and at seventeen he 
secured an appointment to West Point. His name havinji been wrongly registered. 
Grant vainly attempted to set the matter right, but finally accepted his "manifest 
destiny," assumed the change thus forced upon him, and thenceforth signed himself 
" Ulysses Simpson," the latter being his mother's family name. Two years after ccmi- 
pleting his four years' course as cadet, the Mexican war broke out, in which Grant 
conducted himself with great gallantry, receiving especial mention and promotion. 
A few years later he retired to private life, where he remained until the opening of 
the Civil War. He was then appointed to command a company of volunteers, and 
soon afterwards was commissioned as colonel of the Twenty-first Illinois Regiment. 
His military and political career was henceforth a part of the country's history. A 
plain, quiet, gentle, unostentatious, reticent man, he attracted little attention to him- 
self personally. But his inflexible resolution, that held steadily to Its purpose through 



1870] 



DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 



319 



cash, at higher prices than before ; and still others ^ were 
given to actual settlers under the Homestead Act (of 1862) 
which secured 80 or 160 acres to a person who lived on 
the land and cultivated it for five years. 

The Fifteenth Amendment^ which says the right of suf- 
frage shall not be denied to any one on account of " race, 
color, or previous condition of servitude," having been 
ratified by the requisite number of States, was formally 
announced as a part of the Constitution (March 30, 1870). 




AFTER THE CHICAGO FIRE. 

Fires. — 1. A great fire broke out in Chicago, Sunday 
night, October 8, 1871. For two days it raged with tre- 

every delay and disaster; his fertility of resource to meet each movement of his wary 
opponents ; his power of handling great masses of men, and of maneuvering in concert 
the widely separated Federal armies ; his unruffled calmness, alike in moments of 
defeat and of triumph ; his prompt action in an emergency, as if he had foreseen and 
prepared for it; above all, his sublime faith in his ultimate and perfect success, in- 
spired his companions in arms with an intense devotion, and made him seem to them 
the very "incarnation of the cause for which they were fighting." After the close 
of his administration he made the tour of the world, and was everywhere received 
with marked enthusiasm and honor. His tomb is in New York city beside the Hud- 
son River. 

1 From 2,000,000 to 9,000,000 acres every year since 1867. 



320 GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION [1871 

mendous violence, devastating nearly five square miles. 
Twenty-five thousand buildings were burned, and 100,000 
persons were rendered homeless. Contributions for the 
sufferers were taken in nearly all parts of the world, and 
over $7,500,000 was raised, 2. During the samo autuinii 
unusually widespread conflagrations raged in the forests 
of Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Michigan. Entire villages 
were consumed. Fifteen hundred people perished in 
Wisconsin alone. 3. An extensive fire occui-red in Boston, 
November 9, 1872. It swept over sixty acres in the cen- 
ter of the wholesale trade of that city, and destroyed 
$70,000,000 woi'th of property. 

Railroad Panic. — In the autumn of lS7o Jay Cooke 
& Co., bankers of Philadelphia, having engaged too ex- 
tensively in railroad schemes, failed. A financial crisis 
ensued, and hundreds of prominent firms all over the 
Union were involved in ruin. A settled stringency of the 
money market and a stagnation of business followed. 

Indian Wars. — 1. The Modoc Indians having refused 
to stay on their reservation in Oregon, troops were sent 
against them (1873). They retreated to their fastnesses in 
th(! lava beds in northern California, where the I'ough- 
ness of the ground made attack difficult. At a conference 
with peace commissioners they treacherouslj'- slew two, 
whereui)on the war against them was renewed. Finally 
they left the lava beds and were captured. 

2. The Sioux Indians having refused to go upon the 
reservation assigned them l)y treaty, a force of regular 
troops was sent against them (b876). General Custer led 
the advance with the Seventh Cavalry, while General 
Terry moved up the Big Horn to attack them in the rear. 
On the 25th of June General Custer snddeiily eani<' upon 
the enemy. AVithout waiting for su])porl, lie detached 



1876] 



DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 



321 



Colonel Reno with three companies to fall upon the back 
of the Indian village, while he charged the savages in 
front. A desperate conflict ensued. Gleneral Custer, his 
two brothers, his nephew, and every one of his men were 




THE CUSTER MASSACRE. 



killed. Colonel Reno was surrounded, but held his ground 
on the bluffs until reenforcements arrived. The Indians 
were soon beaten on every hand. 

Centennial Exhlhition. — The year 1875, the hundredth 
anniversary of the first year of the Revolutionary War, 
was marked by various centennial observances. To com- 
memorate the signing of the Declaration of Independence, 
an exhibition of the arts and industries of all nations 
^vas held at Philadelphia during the summer of 1876. 
The beautiful grounds of Fairmonnt Pai'k were the scene 
of this imposing display. The lower floor of the Main 



322 



GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION 



[1876 



Exhibition Building covered more than twenty acres. 
There were more than 200 smaller structures scattered 
over the extensive grounds. The exhibition lasted six 
months, and was visited by nearly ten millions of people. 

]^ew State. — ( 'olorado was admitted to the Union this 
year (1876), and hence is called the *' Centennial State." 

Foreign Affairs.— Treat n of Washiuf/toi/.— The refusal of 
the British government to pay for the damages to Ameri- 
can commerce caused l)y the AJahdina and other Confed- 
erate cruisers ([). 300) produced bitter feeling and even 
threatened war. A commission composed of distin- 
guished statesmen and jui'ists from both countries met 
in Washington and arranged the basis of a treaty be- 
tween the United States and Great Britain, settling this 
and other causes of dispute (1871). According to its pro- 
visions, the claim for losses 
was submitted to a board 
of arbitrators, who, having 
convened at Geneva, in 
Switzerland, awarded the 
United States $15,500,000. 
A dispute as to the bound- 
ary between the United 
States and British Colum- 
Itia, involving the owner- 
siiip of a small group of 
islands between Vancouver 
and the mainland, Avas sub- 
mitted to the emperor of Germany, and was decided in 
favor of the United States.' Thus, happily, all danger of 



x: 




\<' 



' \"'''7/ri7r,'-' 



y 



W,J^-S>H(l N C T iVNt 

SC»LE OF MILES _^ / / 7.x > ^1 

6 I'O 20 30 10 50 " ._/' ^.^^^^L^ZA 




DISPUTED BOUNDAKV NEAK VANCOUVER. 



' Also, a disinilc about the flslioriesof tho northoastoni roast — iiivolvinffrompoiisa- 
tion claimed for privilcKCsjrranU'dto Aincriciiii Mslicniicii in Ciinailii and Newfoundland 
— was referred to a commission, whieli awarded (1878) (ireat r.ritiiiii I lie sum of $.'5,500,000. 



1872] POLITICAL PARTIES 323 

war was averted, and the g-reat principle of the settle- 
ment of disputes hy peaceful arbitration rather than by 
the sword was firmly established. 

Political Parties — Before the end of Grant's first term 
there arose dissensions in the Republican party. In 1872 
the Liberal Republicans — those opposed to the admin- 
istration and in favor of a more liberal treatment of the 
South — nominated Horace Greeley^ of New York for 
President, and this nomination was endorsed by the Dem- 
ocratic party. But the regular Republicans nominated 
and reelected President Grant. 

Four years later, the Republican party nominated Ruth- 
erford B. Hayes of Ohio, and the Democratic party nomi- 
nated Samuel J. Tilden of New York.- This presidential 

1 Horace Greeley was born at Amherst, N. H., 1811 ; died 1872. At two years of 
.txiie he ))e,uau to study the newspapers given him for amusement, and at four eould 

read auytliino: placed before him. At six he was somewhat versed in geography and 
arithmetie, and had read thi^ entire Bible. His passion for books increased with his 
years, and in early youth he became a printer, learning the trade in East Poultuey, 
Vt. In 1831 he went tu New York, and, FraTiklin-like, walked the streets in search of 
work. When he secured it he showed marked diligence and integrity. Ten years 
later he founded the New York Tribune, and as editor of this newspaper he exerted 
a wide influence the rest of his life. He served in Congress in 18i8-49. When civil 
war seemed imminent he advocated a peaceable division of the country ; but after it 
opened ho urged a vigorous prosecution of hostilities. At the close of the war he 
pleaded for immediate conciliation, and was a signer of the bail bond which restored 
Jefferson Davis to liberty after two years' imprisonment in Foi-t Monroe. Just before 
the close of the presidential canvass his wife died, and this, together with the deser- 
ti<m of friends and the excitement of the contest, unsettled his mind. He was taken 
to a private asylum, where he died a few weeks after the election. 

2 The principal political questions which agitated the ountry during this cam- 
paign were the Southern policy of the government, and civil service reform. (1) It 
■was held on one side that negroes and Republicans in the South were intimidated by 
force and prevented from voting, and that the presence of the United States troops 
was necessary to the preservation of the rights of the citizens, free discussion, a free 
ballot, and an enforcement of the laws. It was asserted, on the other side, that the 
use of the troops for such purposes was unconstitutional; that the intimidation was 
only imaginary, or could be readilj' controlled by the local authorities ; and that the 
presence of the military provoked violence and was a constant insult and menace to 
the States. (2) President Jackson, as we have seen (p. 205), introduced into our 
politics the principle of " rotation in office." This policy steadily gained favor until 
Marcy'6 maxim, "To the victors belong the spoils," became the commonly accepted 



324 HAYES'S ADM IN ISTK ATION [1870 

campuigu was so hotly coutestcMl, and such irregularities 
were charged against the elections in Oregon, South Caro- 
lina, Florida, and Louisiana, that botli parties claimed the 
victory. The Constitution, does not expressly state how 
the electoral votes shall be counted (read the Twelfth 
Amendment). A I'ule which Congress had made was un- 
satisfactory, but as the Senate was now Republican and 
the House Democratic, they were unal^le for a long time 
to agree on a new rule. Finally, in order to settle the dis- 
pute. Congress i-eferred the contested election returns to 
a Joint Electoral Commission, composed of five sena- 
tors, five i-eprescntatives, and five judges of the Supreme 
Court. This body, by a vote of eight to seven, decided 
the contest in each case in favor of the Republicans. This 
made the electoral vote for Hayes 185, and for Tilden 184 ; 
and Hayes was therefore declared to be elected. 



HAYES'S ADMINISTRATION (1877-1881) ' 

Domestic Affairs. — United States Troops in the ' South 
Withdrawn. — President Hayes's Southern policy was one 
of conciliation. The troops which had hitlierto sustained 
the Republican State governments in South Carolina and 

view, and after every iiiiportantnelection llie Kuccessfnl party was aeeustomed to 
till even tlie menial ottices of government witli its favorites. Under siieb a systeni, 
tlie qualitieatioQ of tlie applicant was of nnu-li less importance tlian the service he had 
done tlie party. Hayes promised to make " no dismissal except for cause, and no pro- 
motion e.\cei)t for merit." 

1 Rutlierford B. Hayes was born in Delaware, Oliio, 1822; died 1893. At si.xteen he 
entered Kenyon College, where he was gradnated as valedictorian of his class. After 
passing tlirongh tlie Harvard Law Pchool, lie was a<lniitted to the bar in 1845. At the 
breaking out of the Civil War. be received a commission as nia.jor of the Twenty -tliiril 
Ohio Volnnfeers. In camp he proved attentive to the wants of his men ; in battle lu- 
inspired them with his own dashing bravery. While yet in the field he was elected to 
Congress, where lie served two terms. Boon after, he was chosen governor of Ohio, 
being twice reelected — the last time after a brilliant hard-money campaign which 
attracted national attention. 



1877] DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 325 

Louisiana were withdrawn, and Democratic officials at 
once took control of the local affairs. 

Railroad Strike (1877). — In many branches of industry 
workmen had sometimes " struck " in attempts to improve 
the conditions of their employment; but up to this time 
the strikes had affected few besides the workmen and 
employers immediately concerned. Now, in the summer 
after Hayes's inauguration, occurred the first great strike 
that caused widespread injuiy to the general public. Be- 
ginning at Pittsburg on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, 
it quickly spread to other lines and paralyzed traffic on 
nearly all the principal roads in the Northern States. 
Alarming riots occurred in many cities, and regular 
troops and militia were required to disperse the rioters. 
At Pittsburg scores of lives were lost and several million 
dollars' worth of property was destroyed before order was 
finally restored. 

Changes in Currency. — In 1873 Congress had demonetized 
silver, and made gold the sole standard of currency ; but 
now, in 1878, the Bland-Allison Bill was passed, making 
silver dollars also a legal tender.^ Then, in 1879, the gov- 
ernment resumed specie i3ayments — that is, began to pay 
gold for its paper money (p. 308) ; and, for the first time 
since 1862, gold sold at par. 

Political Parties. — The Republicans elected James A. 
Garfield President, and Chester A. Arthur Vice President. 
The Democratic candidate for President was Winfield S. 

1 The law provided also for the purchase aiul coinage, each month, of from $2,000,000 
to $4,000,000 worth of silver. An act of 1890 provided instead that the Secretary of the 
Treasury should buy each month 4,500,000 ounces of silver. These acts caused the use 
of much silver coin, but they did not restore silver to its original position beside gold 
as a standard money. Before 1873 any one could take either metal, in bullion, to the 
mint and receive the same amount in coin; that is, there was free coinage of both 
metals, and the monetary standard w;vs bimetallic. Since 1873 there has been free 
coinage of gold only. 



326 GARFIELD AND AKTHTK'S ADMINISTRATION [1H81 

HaiK'oek of Peiiusylvania; the Gi'eeubaek-Lal)or, James 
B. Weaver of Iowa. 



GARFIELD AND ARTHUR'S ADMINISTRATION (1881-1885)1 

Domestic Affairs. — Assassination of President Garfield 
(1881), — On the morning of July 2 the country was 
shocked by the news that the President, while standing in 
the raih'oad station at Washington, liad been shot liy a 
disappointed office seeker. The startling tidings pro- 
duced an effect similar to that occasioned by the death of 
Lincoln. The wounded President lay for weeks hovering 
between life and death, an example of patience, fortitude, 
and courage. He died on the 19th of September. Vice- 
President Arthur now took the oath of office and assumed 
the duties of President. 

1 James Abram Garfleld was born in Cuyahoga County, Ohio, 1831. His father 
i-learecl a email farm in what was then a wilderness, and, dying soon after the birth 
"f his illustrious son, left his family in gi-eat poverty. Brought up amid stern 
surroundings, his education was neglected; but in his eighteenth year he was seized 
with a desire for knowledge, and during one or two winters attended a school at some 
distance from his home, paying his way by working afternoons and holidays at such 
employment as he could procure. After mastering the elementary branches, he taught 
a district school, meanwhile preparing himself for college. He eutered Williams 
College in 1854, from which he was graduated with credit. Boon after, he accepted a 
professorship in an Institute at Hiram, Ohio. On the outbreak of the war Garfleld 
offered his services to his country, and was commissioned as lieutenant colonel, and 
later as colonel of the Forty-second Ohio Volunteers. He took part in the siege of 
Corinth aiid in the liattlc of Chickamauga, and was promoted mnjor general. While 
in the field he was elected to Congress. In this new sphere, he found opportunity for 
the development of rare political abilities. As a member of some of the most impor- 
tant committees of the House, he molded and influenced i.iany important economic 
measures, and was in 1871 recognized as the hinder of liis party in the House. An 
earnest and diligent student, a profouTid thinker and an able orator, he brought to the 
presidency a wealth of knowledge, accomplishments, and experience such as few of 
our Presidents have possessed. 

Chester Alan Arthur was born at Fairfield, Vt., 1830; died 1886. He was gradu- 
ated at Union College (1848), and, having studied law, was admitted to the ))ar, 
where he soon obtained a high position. For a time during the Civil War he served 
as quarternmster general of the State of Ne.w York. In 1871 ho was appointed col- 
lector of th«' i)ort of New York city, and retaiuetl this post six years. 



1882] DOMESTIC AFFAIRS ;527 

Chinese Exclusion (1882). — Many thousand Chinese hav- 
ing come to the Pacific coast of our country, great oppo- 
sition arose to their continued immigration.' Finally 
a law was made forbidding the admission of any Chinese 
laborers for ten years. 

A Civil Service Bill was passed (1883). Under this law 
a commission appointed by the President assists him in 
making and enforcing rules to govern civil service 
appointments and promotions. Applicants for positions 
in the " classified service " compete in examinations held 
under the supervision of the commission. By the law of 
1883 and by orders of the Presidents who have held office 
since that time, a very large proportion of the government 
employees have been included in the classified service and 
thus removed from the operation of the spoils system (see 
p. 323, note 2). Civil service reform laws have also been 
adopted in many of the States. 

Letter Postage was reduced from three cents to two 
cents for each half ounce in 1883, and in 1885 to two 
cents an ounce." 

New Ndrif Befjun. — About the close of the Civil War 
the United States was the strongest naval power in the 
world. But with the return of peace our naval develop- 
ment stopped, and our navy gradually fell into decay, 
while foreign navies made rapid progress. Soon our navy 
was almost the weakest in the world. During this admin- 



1 The Buiiiugaino treaty with China (p. 316) recognized the right of free migra- 
tion. Therefore President Hayes once vetoed a bill to exclude the Chinese, because 
their exclusion, by breaking tbe treaty, would have been an aflfront to a friendly 
nation. But negotiations were promptly begun, resulting in a moditication of the 
treaty (1880) whereby the United States may suspend, but not prohibit, the immigra- 
tion of Chinese laborers. 

- In 1792 tlie rate for letters was from six to twenty-five cents, according to the 
distance carried ; in 1845, five cents for each half ounce if carried less than 300 miles, 
ten cents if over 300 miles ; in 1851, three cents if less than 3000 miles. 



328 CLEVELAND'S EIKST ADMINISTRATION [1SS4 

istratiou a .small bcgimiing was made in Imilding modern 
war ships, and thereafter a continuous and rapid growth 
of our new navy was maintained. To-day onh'^ a few 
countries are better prepared than ours for hostilities at 
sen. 

Political Parties. — The nominees for President (1884) 
were : Democratic, Grover Cleveland of New York ; 
Republican, James G. Blaine of Maine; People's party, 
B. F. Butler of Massachusetts; National Prohibition 
party, J. P. St. John of Kansas. The Democratic candi- 
dates were elected. 

CLEVELAND'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1885-1889)' 

The inauguration of the new President brought the 
Democratic party into power for the first time since 
Buchanan left the White House, shortly before the out- 
break of tli(^ Civ^il War. 

Domestic Affairs. — A Presidential Succession Laiv was 
passed (1886), providing that if, at any time, there should 
be no President or Vice President, the office of President 
should devolve upon a member of the Cabinet," the order 

1 (irover Clpveland was born in Caldwell. \. J., 1S37; died 1008. AVlien he was four 
years old, his father, a I'resbyterian clergyman, moved to central New York. It was 
before tlic days of railroads, and the jouruey vyus made by schooner up the Hudson to 
Albany, and thence by packet on the Erie Canal. Young Grover was pursuiufr his 
academic .studies when his father's death left him, at slxteeu, without a dollar to con- 
tinue liis education. Haviufj; made several efforts to e.arn his living, lie borrowed 
twenty-five dollars and started west to seek his fortune. At Buffalo he entered a 
law otHce, began on Blackstone at once, and in ISf)!) was admitted to tlie bar. His 
marked industry, unpretentious courage, and unswerving honesty won him rapid 
promotion. In 1863 he entered political life, filling, in succession, the offices of assist- 
ant district attorney, sherift'. and mayor. Being nominated as the candidate of 
reform, he was elected, in 1882, as governor of New York by a plurality of 192,854, a vote 
which gave him a national rei)\itation. 

'i This law replaced an earlier one, by which the office would devolve instead upon 
the president jpro tempore of the Senate, and then upon the Speaker of the House of 
Representatives. 



1887] DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 329 

of sueeession beiug as follows : the Secretaries of State, 
Treasury, and War, the Attorney General, the Postmaster 
General, the Secretary of the Navy, and the Secretary of 
the Interior. Thus it is made practically certain that the 
presidency shall never be vacant. 

The Electoral Count Act (1887) provides an elaborate 
set of rules to be followed by Congress in counting the 
votes of electors for President and Vice President,' after 
each presidential election. This is designed to prevent 
any future trouble like that occasioned by the disputed 
returns in the Hayes-Tilden contest (p. 324). 

Strikes and Labor Disturhat/ces greatly injured business 
prosperity. In many instauces railroad traffic was sus- 
pended, switches were misplaced, trains derailed, and 
valuable property destroyed. In Chicago (May 4, 1886), 
(luring the excitement caused by a strike of 40,000 work- 
men, the police attempted to scatter a body of anarchists, 
when a bomb was thrown, resulting in the death of seven 
policemen and the injury of many others. 

Earthquake Shocks, beginning on the evening of August 
31, 1886, and continuing at intervals for months, wrought 
special damage at Charleston, S. C. Many people were 
killed or wounded by falling masonry; and public and 
private buildings, venerable churches, and historic edifices 
were destroyed or irretrievably damaged. 

The Statue ofLiherty? — The statue of Liberty Enlight- 



' Each State through its owu soverniueut is expected to decide who are the persona 
choseu electors in that State, ami its decision, if rendered, is tiual. But if both houses 
of Congress, voting separately, reject any elector's vote as not being legally cast, it is 
thrown out. In case of conflicting returns where the State has failed to decide, only 
those votes can be counted which are accepted by both houses of Congress ; — if the 
two houses disagree, all the conflicting votes are thrown out. 

2 This statue, the work of the French sculptor Bartholdi, is 151 feet high, and stands 
on a pedestal of about the same height. The uplifted torch in Liberty's hand is thus 
about 300 feet above the ground. 
B. HIST. V. s.— 20 



330 



CLEVELAND'S FIKST ADMINISTRATION 



[188G 




-aiSiikSsyir:^^ 



Pls6%^-: 



euing the World, presented by Frenchmen to this country, 
and erected on an islan<l in New York harbor, was un- 
veiled in the presence 
of many distinguished 
guests (October, 1H86). 

Interstate Commerce Act 
(1887).— The vast in- 
crease in the extent aud 
use of railroads made the 
great railroad comj>anies 
very influential in many 
branches of business. 
Favored shippers were 
given special low rates, 
enabling them to crush 
their competitors. In 
many cases a lower rate 
was charged for long dis- 
tances than for interme- 
diate short distances. Under the clause of the Constitu- 
tion which gives Congress power to regulate connnerce 
between the States, an Interstate Commerce Law was 
enacted which forbade these practices on all railroads 
operating in two or more States, and established an 
Interstate Commerce Commission, with power to make 
such railroads treat all patrons fairly. 

Political Parties. — The question of the tariff (see pp. 
201, 202) was once more brought into politics. The 
Democrats, who advocated a reduction of the duties on 
imports, renominated Grover Cleveland for President; 
the Republicans, in favor of protection, nominated Benja- 
min Harrison of Indiana, Besides these there were several 
other candidates in the field. Harrison was elected. 




THE STATUE OF LIBERTY. 



1889] DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 331 

HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION (1889-1893) ' 

Domestic Affairs.— The Johnstoum Flood (May 31, 1889) 
was caused by the breaking of a reservoir dam during a 
severe freshet. An immense avalanche of water swept 
through the Con'emaugh valley, in Pennsylvania, over- 
whelming the city of Johnstown, destroying more than 
$10,000,000 iu property, and bringing death to many hun- 
dreds of people. 

TJte Tariff. — In 1890 the Republican majority in Con- 
gress passed the McKinley Act, which raised the average 
rate of <]uties." 

Pensions. — United States soldiers disabled in the service, 
and the widows and orphans of soldiers, have long been 
generously pensioned. Finally (1890) pensions were 
granted to all soldiers unable to earn a living by manual 
labor, whether or not their injuries were received in the 
service. A few years later the pension roll contained 

1 Beiijeimin Harrison was born at North Bend, Ohio, August 20, 1833; died 1901. His 
father was John 8cott Harrison, farmer; Lis graudfatlier, William Henry Harrison, 
governor, general, and President (see p. 210) ; and his great-grandfather, Benjamin 
Harrison, one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence. Until about the 
age of fourteen years, Benjamin was educated mainly at home. He then studied 
for two years at Farmer's ColU^ge, near Cincinnati, after, which he entered Miami 
University, where he graduated in 1852. Choosing the law as his profession, he was 
duly admitted to the bar, and established himself in Indianapolis. Upon the breaking 
out of tlie Civil War he enlisted in the service of his country, in which he remained 
till the close of hostilities. Commissioned as colonel of the Seventieth Indiana Vol- 
unteers, he was brevetted as brigadier general for ability, energy, and gallantry. He 
was greatly beloved by his men, who bestowed on him the soubriquet of " Little Ben." 
In 1881 he was elected to the United States Senate, where he displayed great ability 
as a statesman. 

- This act also made provision for reciprocity ; that is, for an exchange of favors, in 
the way of taking off duty on certain foreign goods, with such countries as should by 
treaty make similar concessions to us.— Just before this (1889, 1890), a Pan-American 
Congress, or Conference, consisting of representatives fi-om the various republics of 
America, met in Washington and discussed means of bringing the countries into closer 
e<'onomic relations and preventing strife between them. Though the immediate results 
of the conference were unimportant, it accomplished much in directing attention to an 
important problem. 



332 HABRISUN'S ADMINISTRATION [1890 

nearly 1,000,000 names, the average pension being about 
$140 a year. 

Ballot Reform. — Since 1888 most of the States have 
adopted the Australian ballot system, with various modifi- 
cations. The main object of this widespread reform was 
to diminish corrupt practices in elections; and this was 
effected (1) by adopting official ballots printed at public 
expense, and (2) by enforcing on the voter absolute privacy 
in preparing his ballot for voting.' 

Oklahoma. — A part of the Indian Territory, called Okla- 
homa, was purchased from the Indians and thrown open 
to settlement (April 22, 1889). In anticipation of this, 
prospective settlers had encamped on the bordei-, and at 
the appointed signal began a mad rush for the best loca- 
tions. Before night Oklahoma liad a population of some 
fifty thousand, towns had sprung up, and even newspapers 
had been printed. The boundaries of Oklahoma were 
afterwards extended. It was made a Territory in 1890. 

Indian Trouhles. — In the autumn of 1890 the Sioux In- 
dians of the Northwest became restive. In December sev- 
eral thousand excited Indians were encamped at Wounded 
Knee, in South Dakota. An atteini)t to disarm the war- 
riors resulted in a battle on the 28th, in which 200 were 
killed, including many Indian women and children; but 
within twenty days the Indians were all disarmed. 

Labor Trouhles resulted in increased bitterness of feel- 
ing between labor and capital. In the summer of 1892, 
through disagreement as to wages, a lockout" occurred in 

' The older method of voting, though by ballot, ilirt not secure secrecy to sncli voters 
as were exposed to iutiinidatiou, nor enforce it .'li^ainst siidi as wished to sell their 
votes and show how they voted. Each party provided its own liallots, and a liallot was 
often ke|»t in sipht from the moment it was placed in the voter's hand until it was cast. 

2 In a lockout the employer stops work by discharfjins liis worknnMi, while in a 
strike the workmen make the first move. But as the result is the same in either case, 
all such cessations of work are commonly called strikes. 



1892] POLITICAL PARTIES 333 

the great steel foundries near Pittsburg. At Homestead 
the striking workmen refused to leave the premises, and 
the employing company hired a force of private detectives 
to eject them. A riot ensued in which many were killed 
or wounded. The militia were then summoned, and order 
was gradually restored. Bloody riots took place also at 
the mines in Idaho and in Tennessee. 

Chinese Exclusion (1892). — The law prohibiting the immi- 
gration of Chinese laborers (p. 327) was reenacted for an- 
other ten-year period, and. was made stricter than before. 
All Chinamen in the country were obliged to obtain cer- 
tificates showing their right to be here, or else to leave. 

New States admitted — North and South Dakota, Wash- 
ington, Montana, Idaho, Wyoming (p. 359). 

An International Copyright Law was enacted by Congress 
in 1891, after more than half a century of debate. It affords 
copyright protection to foreign authors of such nations as 
secure like protection to Americans. 

Political Parties. — The tariff was still the important 
issue in 1892. The Democrats once more nominated Grover 
Cleveland for President, and the Republicans nominated 
Benjamin Harrison. The People's party, which advocated 
legislation favoring the farmers, nominated James B. 
Weaver, and the Prohibition party nominated John 
Bidwell. Cleveland was elected.^ 



CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION (1893-1897) 

Domestic Affairs. — TJie World's Columbian Exposi- 
Hon, in celebration of the four hundredth anniversary of 

1 The electoral vote was: for Cleveland, 277 ; Harrison, 145; Weaver, 22. Tlile was 
the first time since the Civil War that electoral votes went to any party other than the 
Republican and Democratic. 



336 



CLEVELAND'S SEOuND ADMINISTRATION 



[1893 



the discovery of America, having been dedicated is Octo- 
ber, 1892, was opened to the pnbhc in May, 1893. This 
great industrial exhibition was created by act of Congress, 
and was held in Chicago. All nations participated. The 
cost of the exposition was in excess of $80,000,000, and 




WORLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION. 

during the six months of its continuance the turnstiles 
recorded over 20,000,000 paid admissions. 

Extra Session of Congress (1898). — Various causes 
having brought on a monetary crisis, President Cleveland 
called a special session of Congress. The relative values 
of gold and silver had so changed by this time that the 
metal in a silver dollar was worth only al)out half as much 
as a gold dollar. Many people believed that there were too 
many silver dollars in circulation, too many for the gov- 
ernment to keep at their face value. Finally Congress 
repealed the law of 1890 requiring the government to buy 
4,500,000 ounces of silver each mouth. 



1894] DOMESTIC AFE^AIRS 337 

l{c(hicfio7f of the Tarif{\H^U). — At tlie next regular ses- 
sion of Congress the average tariff was slightly reduced by 
the Gorman-Wilson Act. 

Repeal of the Force BiU. — 'For many years presidential 
and congressional elections in the Southern States had 
been placed, in certain conditions, under the supervision 
of men appointed by federal authority, the aim being 
to protect the negro vote. The law providing for this 
supervision was now repealed (1894), leaving the elections 
in each State to be controlled by State authority, as they 
were before the Civil War. 

A Great Bailroad Strike (1894) was occasioned by 
trouble between the Pullman Car Company and its em- 
ployees. The American Railroad Union having taken up 
the quarrel (June 26), more railway employees quit work 
than in any other strike in history, and for some weeks 
little business was done on the Western railroads. The 
focus of the strike was Chicago, the greatest railroad 
center in the world. Some property having been de- 
stroyed, and the postal service interfered with. President 
Cleveland sent troops there to restore order, against the 
protest of the governor of Illinois, who denied the right 
of the federal government to interfere except on request 
of the State. Then, the leaders of the strike having 
been arrested for disobeying injunctions of the federal 
courts, the strike collapsed. 

New State admitted— Utah (p. 360). 

Foreign Affairs. — Hawaii (hah wi'ee). — In January, 
1893, the queen of the Hawaiian Islands' had been 

1 When discovered, the Hawaiian Islands were gorerned by a number of independ- 
ent chiefs. But about tlie beginuiux of the nineteenth century Kamehameha (kah- 
ma hah'ma hah) succeeded in extending his rule over the whole group, and founded a 
kingdom which lasted nearly a hundred years. At his death the ancient worship of 
idols and many cruel heathenish practices were overthrown. lu 1820 the first mis-sion- 



y38 



CLEVELAXDS SECOND ADMINISTRATION 



[1894 



deposed ; tlie Hawuiian revolutiouists applied tor annex- 
ation to our country. President Cleveland believed 
that the revolution 



SCALE OF MILeS 
1!U 4U CO tH) 



Honolt^l 

c 

A 



'AOAHU 



^ 



HAWAIIAN ISLANDS. 



MOLOKAI 

^*'^, _. „«. 

KAHOOLAWE 






^ — ^■ 



ists had been im- 
properly aided by 
the American min- 
ister, and he tried to 
have the queen re- 
stored; but the Hawaiians in power 
made the islands a republic (July 4, 
1894). 

The Venezueliin Boundary. — In 1895 
a boundary dispute between Yonezuela and British Ouiana 
seemed likely to lead to war. Cleveland, following the 
Monroe Doctrine (p. 200), protested to Great Britain 
against any seizure of Venezuelan territory. He ap- 
pointed a commission to ascertain the true boundary; 
but before it could report, Great Britain and Venezuela 
signed a treaty of arbitration (February 2, 1897), and 
the dispute was amicably adjusted. 

Political Parties. — The leading candidates for Presi- 
dent and Vice President in 1896 were: Republican, in 
favor of the existing gold monetary standard, William 
McKinley of Ohio, and Garret A. Hobart of New Jersey ; 
Democratic, in favor of free coinage of silver, William J. 
Bryan of Nebraska, and Arthur Sewall of Maine ; Peo- 
ple's party, W^illiani J. Bryan, and Thomas E. Watson of 
Georgia; National Democratic (gold standard), John M. 
Palmer of Illinois, and Simon B. Buekuer of Kentucky. 
The Republican nominees were elected. 

aries arrived from the Uiiitert States, and theroafter tlio people made rapid progress 
in education and the arts of civilization. A considerable uiunlier of foreigners, of 
various nationalities, also came to the islands lo live; and in 1840 the klntf promul- 
gated a constitution. 



1897] DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 339 



McKINLEY'S ADMINISTRATION (1897-1901)1 

Domestic Affairs. — The Tariff. — An extra session of 
Congress was called to meet on March 15, 1897, for the 
purpose of increasing the revenue. A tariff bill for reve- 
nue and protection, similar in many respects to the 
McKinley Bill of 1890, was introduced by the Republi- 
cans, and was made a law July 24, 1897. 

During the war witk Spain Congress passed an act still 
further increasing the revenue (p. 34G). 

Gold Standard Act. — In March, 1900, an act was passed 
expressly adopting the gold standard of money, and mak- 
ing it the duty of the treasury to maintain all our money 
on a parity with gold. Ever since 1879 (p. 325) this parity 
had been maintained, but it was partly through the exer- 
cise of discretion by the Secretary of the Treasury, who 
might, within the letter of the law, have paid United 
States notes and bonds in silver coin instead of in gold. 
The act of 1900, however, left the secretary no discretion 
in regard to United States notes ; at the same time it pro- 
vided for refunding most of the bonded debt by the issue 
of thirty-year bonds payable in gold and bearing two per 
cent interest. It also allowed national banks to issue 
banknotes up to the face value of United States bonds 
deposited by them in the treasury. Previously the 
banks had been allowed to issue banknotes up to only 
ninety per cent of the value of the bonds deposited. 

' William McKinley was born at Niles, Trumltull County, Obio, in 1843 ; died 1901. 
After a course ot study in the village academy at Poland, Ohio, he entered the junior class 
of Allegheny College in 18(10; but on the outln'cak of the Civil War ho enlisted as a pri- 
vate ill the Union army. Through bravery and meritorious service he rose to the rank 
of captain and brevet major. When peace was restored he studied law, and in ]8t;7 
began practice in Canton, Ohio, which was thereafter his home. His eloquence and 
ability in debate soon secured him political prominence, and for seven consecutive 




^Tg, ^""^^^.-.^^^ 



1898J THE WAR WITH SPAIN 341 

TJie Galveston Disaster. — Galveston, the chief seaport 
of Texas, lies on a low island between the Gnlf of Mexico 
and Galveston Bay. Driven by hurricane winds, the 
waters rose until the entire city was flooded, while great 
waves swept over the island, demolishing many houses 
and stores and drowning thousands of people (September 
8 and 9, 1900). Relief for the survivors poured in from 
all quarters, and the undaunted citizens made haste to 
restore their city. 

THE WAR WITH SPAIN (1898) 

Causes. — Cuba, the "Pearl of the Antilles," though 
abounding in natural resources, was not prosperous under 
the rule of Spain, and from time to time the Cuban people, 
both black and white, rebelled against the government 
imposed on them. The last of these rebellions ' began in 
February, 1895, and though Spain sent in all 200,000 sol- 
diers to Cuba, she failed in over three years to restore 
order. The rebels were greatly aided by men, rifles, can- 
non, ammvmition, and other supplies carried to them by 
ships from our country ; but our government stopped such 
expeditions whenever it could. 

The insurgents soon formed the Republic of Cuba, but 

terms (1877-91) he was sent as a Republican representative to Congress, though once 
unseated by his political opponents. He was especially noted as an advocate of a 
protective tariff, and ns ho was chairman of the Committee of Ways and Means, his 
name was given to the tariff act of 1890 (p. 331). In the fall of 1890 he was defeated for 
Congress on account of changes in the make-up of his district; but the next year he 
was chosen governor of Ohio, and in 1893 was reelected by an increased majority. At 
the hour of his fmieral, throughout the country all traffic was stopped for a few min- 
utes; even steamers and railroad trains came to a standstill wherever they happened 
to be. No such tribute had ever before been paid to any one's memory. 

' The most serious of the earlier rebellious began in 18RS and lasted ten years, dur- 
ing which time Ppnin sent 80,000 soldiers to Cuba. The last of the rebels laid down 
their nruis after receiving promises of rcforui in the Cuban government which were 
not kept. 



342 



McKINLEY'S ADMINISTRATION 



[1898 



sought in vain to secure recognition from the United 
States. Our government, however, warned Spain that 
the struggle could not go on indefinitely without inter- 
vention on our part. Our citizens had millions of dollars 
invested in Cuban property, and an impoi'tant commerce 
which was being rapidly ruined through the devastation 
of the island. Moreover, our people were shocked at the 
suffering of the rcconccntrados — Cubans who had been 
compelled by the Sj^anish general, Weyler, under pain of 
death, to leave their country homes and concentrate at 
the large towns, where they were hemmed in by the gar- 
risons and left to starve. Tens of thousands of them thus 



' 
















/ 


#;: :> 


i 






-V- 






^" 






/ 


— 




: 


- 


V 




- 
















^ 

^ 






i 


1^ 


^^ 


sji 


;:l'^ 
-^'' 


lY J^'^^^ 


^ 



L 



TUK WKKCK <)F TIli; M AISK. 



miserably perished, though some supplies were sent to 
them from the United States. 

On the night of February 15, 1898, our battleship Maine 
was blown \\\) in the harbor of Havana, with the loss 
of 2(30 of her crew. From that moment the hope of a 
peaceable settlement of the Cuban problem rapidly waned, 
and both nations prepared for war. Congress passed 
a resolution dcnuniding the withdrawal of Spain from 
Cuba, and authorizing the use of our army and navy 



1898J 



THE WAR WITH SPAIN 



343 



to compel her, if necessary (April 19). The President, hav- 
ing signed this, sent a copy of it as an ultimatum to Spain 
(April 21), and war began on the same day. 

Fighting in the Philippines.— Although the avowed 
object of the struggle was merel}' to compel Spain to 
abandon Cuba, the first blow, and also the last, were struck 




BATTLE OF MANILA BAY. 



at her on the opposite side of the globe, in her colony of 
the Philippine Islands (map, p, 351). There, in Manila 
Bay, Commodore George Dewey's squadron completely 
destroyed a Spanish fleet, killing and wounding over 600 
men, while not a ship on our side was lost, and only 7 men 
were wounded (May 1).^ And there the city of Manila was 
captured through the joint operations of Dewey's ships 
and of a United States army that had been transported 

I For this brilliant \iftory Dewey received the thanks of Congress, and was pro- 
moted rear admiral and afterwards admiral. 



344 



McKI.XLEVS AD.MIXI.STRATIOX 



[1898 







'' ,, SCALC OF 


MM.ES 




160 


200 360 


•^ ^.. 


. '-^. 


'«, -'-^ - ^ 






ISLE OF 
PINES 




J'^0, 


4^ 








■ -^,~?:ifjt 


k» «. 








^ 


Sutl^ dc Cuba 


est 


%./^,. II 








«^V 




"<>,, '".. 




JAMAICA^pfe 


« A T > 





across the Pacific, comiiiiindtd Ity (u'licml AW-slcy JMemtt 
(August 13). This battle was fought, as we shall see, one 
day after the cessatiou of hostilities had been ordered, 
but before news of it had arrived at the Philippines. 

Fighting in the West Indies.— The other battles of this 
war were fought in the West Indies. Throughout the 
struggle our navy maintained a blockade of Havana and 
the western end of Cul)a, and this led to the capture of a 
considerable number of Spanish vessels. But the decisive 

conflicts occurred 
near tlie well forti- 
fied harbor of San- 
tiago (sahn te ah'- 
go), in the eastern 
end of the island. 
Here, in the latter 
part of May, a 
Spanish squadron 
commanded by Admiral Cervera (ther va'rah) took refuge, 
and was blockaded by our ships under Commodore Win- 
field S. Schley (sli), and later also by those under Rear 
Admiral William T. Sampson, who had the command of the 
entire fleet. In an attempt to make the blockade complete, 
the collier 3/erWwmc was sunk in the narrow channel lead- 
ing to the harbor. This feat was performed, amid a storm 
of shot and shell from the forts, by Lieutenant Kichmond 
P. Hobson and a crew of seven, who were taken prisoners 
and afterwards exchanged. 

Battles near Santiaf/o. — An army of about 18,000 men, 
under Genei'al William K. Shaffer, was now landed on the 
coast, not far from Santiago. After severe fighting, it 
took and held the outer defenses of the city, including 
the earthworks of El Caney (cah na') and San Juan (sahn 



CI;BA and POKTt) RICO. 



1898] 



THE WAR WITPI SPAIN 



345 



hoo ahn') Hill (July 1, 2).^ Our total loss in this campaign 
was about 250 killed and 1400 wounded and missing; the 
Spanish loss was believed to be greater. 

Battle ofJidijS.—A^ the city seemed sure tofall,Cervera's 
six ships sailed out of the harbor past the Merrbnacs^^^d 




THE OltEGON AT SANTIAGO. 



tried to escape ; l3ut they were at once attacked by the 
blockading fleet, and were soon sunk or stranded, shattered 
wrecks, on the shore of Cuba.^ Besides the many killed, 
about 1800 Spanish sailors were taken prisoners ; of our 
men only one was killed and a few wounded. 



1 In this action the " Rough Riders" played an important part. They were a regi- 
ment of volimteer cavalry recruited largely from Western cowboys and Eastern ath- 
letes. They were led up Pan Juau Hill by Colonel Theodore Roosevelt. 

2\Mienthe Spanish fleet appeared, it happened that Admiral Sampson, with hLs 
flagship the ^eie York; was several miles to the east, on his way to a conference with 
General Shaf ter. Schley's flagship, the Brooklyn, was at the west end of the blockad- 
ing fleet, and as the Spaniards tried to escape by sailing west, the Brooklyn waa 
in the thickest of the tight. Another ship that distinguished herself was the Oregon. 
Though she was a heavy battleship, and had recently made the long trip from Han 
Francisco around South America, she steamed as swiftly as a cruiser, and helped to 
capture the last and swiftest of the Spanish ships. 



346 McKlNLEY'S ADMINISTRATION [1898 

Surrender of Santlmjo (July 17). — Rather than incur an 
assault on Santiago, the Spanish surrendered the city, to- 
gether with the eastern end of Cuba and an army of 
about 22,000 men, whi(!h we had to transport to Spain. 
A few days later General Nelson A. Miles set off with an 
army of about 20,000 to seize Poi-to Rico. He had occu- 
pied a large pai-t of the island without much opposition, 
when hostilities came to an end. 

Peace. — On August 12, 1898, a protocol was signed at 
AVashington, providing for the cessation of hostilities and 
a meeting, at Paris, of commissioners to negotiate a for- 
mal treaty of peace. The protocol also provided for the 
abandonment of Cuba by Spain, and the cession of Porto 
Rico and one of the Ladrones to the United States. The 
disposition of the Philippines was left to be decided in the 
final treaty of peace; Manila in the meanwhile was to be 
occupied by the United States. 

The treaty was completed and signed at Paris, Decem- 
ber 10, 1898, and within a few months was ratified by 
l)()th govci-niiHMits (by the United States February 6, 
1899). The most important additions to the terms con- 
tained in the protocol wei-e the cession of the Philippines 
by Spain, the i:)ayment of $20,000,000 to Spain, and the 
naming of Guam as the member of the Ladrone group 
referred to in the protocol. 

The Cost of the War was met chiefly by the sale of 
bonds to the extent of $200,000,000. Besides this increase 
in the public debt, Congress imposed a number of ad- 
ditional taxes, including many stamp taxes, an inheritance 
tax, and a duty on tea. 

Two hundred thousand volunteers were enlisted at the 
beginning of the war, and many of them saw service be- 
side the regulars in Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippines. 



1898] INSULAR AFFAIRS 347 

Insular Affairs. — The Annexation of the Hawaiian Is- 
lands was unexpectedly hastened during the progress of 
the war with Spain. Even before the protocol was signed, 
the war operations in Asiatic waters, and the possibility 




NATIVi; HOUSK, HAWAII. 



that the Philippines might fall into the possession of the 
United States, made clear the importance of the Hawaiian 
Islands as a naval and military station. The joint resolu- 
tion of annexation was passed by Congress July 6, 1898, 
and its terms were promptly ratified by the Hawaiian 
government. Two years later Congress made the islands 
a Territory, and extended the Constitution and laws of 
the United States over them, so that they form part of our 
country (April 27, 1900). 

Tutuila (too too ee'lah) and some small neighboring 
islands were made the property of the United States by 
treaty with Germany and Great Britain (1900). Tutuila 



348 McKIXL1:Y'S ADMINlyTKATIO.X |isy!) 

lias the best harbor in the Samoaii ishuids, aud is an im- 
portant naval and coaling station.' 

Wake is a small, rocky island in the direct route from 
Hawaii to Hcnigkong. The United States took possession 
of it (Februai-y, 18i)9), in anticipation of its value as a 
station for any cable line that might Ije laid to connect 
with the Philippines. 

rorto liico belonged to the Ignited States a year and a 
half before Congress provided a civil government for it." 
A new question had come in with the new island i)Osses- 
sions: "Were they parts of the United States, and as such 
under the Constitution? or were they merely colonial 
possessions and outside the force of the Constitution? 
After a long and vigorous contest, Congress passed an act 
(April 11, 1900) jn'oviding for a government to be exer- 
cised by a governor and an executive council a])poiiit('d 
by the President; a house of delegates elected by the 
people of the island; and a supreme court appointed by 
the President. It also levied a temporary tariff on im- 
poi'ts from Porto Rico into the United States, and on 
imports from the United States into Porto Rico; and this 



1 In 1889 the fourtcpn islands constitutius the SanioMu jrroup woro hy afn'ecment 
taken under the joint protection of Great Britain, (Jerinany, and the United States. 
l)urln.^'the ten years following, troubles growhig out of the rivalry of chiefs for the 
kingship of the islands led to vexatious ditTerenees between Great Britain aud the 
United States on one side, and Germany on the other. In April, 18'J'.), the thne 
powers appointed a coniniiesion to settle the difficulties. The result was a treaty by 
wTiich Great Britain gave up her interest, and the islands were divided between 
Germany and the United States. 

2 The occurrence of a destructive hurricane (August, 1899) compelled many of the 
people to depend on the bounty of the T'nited States, which in a few months dis- 
tributed to them over 30,000,000 pounds of food. The destniction of their crops only 
increased the impatience with which the Porto Ricans waited for Congress to settle 
their new relations and restore their industries. Their separation from Spain liad cut 
ofT a free market lor their main products, which now entered our country under tariff 
rules. As a measure of temporary relief, a bill was passed (March, 1! 00) appropriating 
the duties collected hiflierto on Porto Rican imports, amounting to upward of 
12,000,000, for the benefit of the island. 




349 



350 



Mckinley '8 administration 



[1901 



provision, implying tliat Porto Rico is not part of the 
United States, was declared constitutional by the Supreme 
Court.' This tariff, liowever, came to an end in July, 




I'l.ANTATION, I'OKTO KU U. 



1901, when the local taxation of Porto Rico was found to 
be sufficient for its expenses. 

The PhUippines. — Unlike Porto Rico and Guam, which 
welcomed American authority, some of the Philippines 
ol)jected to any sovereignty foreign to themselves. Many 
of the Filipinos had fought bravely against the tyranny 
of Spain, and now, under the lead of Aguinaldo (ag e- 

1 It was fleciiled that the f;encral laws of the Uuited States, aud sonic of the pro- 
visions of the Constitiitiou, do not apply to new territory until Confn'ess extends 
thorn over it. Porto Rieo, the Philippines, (Uiani, and Tutuila are not parts of tlie 
United States, and their citizens are not citizens of the United States, — except that the 
Porto Kicans were made citizens in It'lT. But they are possessions of our country, under 
the control of Congress, and hence are not foreign. They are practically colonies. 



1899] 



INSULAR AFFAIRS 



•651 





n" PANAY3 I Y_i, "-^ 

WAN ' I'oA'''^'- 1 i"^ 



S U L U 



BRITISH?/^ 



SEA 



iialil'do), they looked for absolute iudependeiice for them- 
selves and their innghbors. 

The war in the Philippines arose when there was no 
active sovereignty over the islands, during the long in- 
terval between the signing and 
the confirmation of the Paris 
treaty. G-eneral Merritt was suc- 
ceeded by General Eiwell S. Otis, 
who occupied Manila, while the 
insurgent Filipinos controlled 
most of the remainder of Lnzon. 
On February 4, 1899, the Fili- 
pinos began the war by attack- 
ing the defenses of Manila ; they 
were repulsed, with a loss of 
2000 men, and General Otis then 
directed an aggressive cam- 
paign. Malo'los, the Filipino 
capital, was captured (March 
31) ; the army of the Filipinos 

was broken up ; and within two years most of the insur- 
gents surrendered. 

In 1899 a commission appointed by the President 
visited the Philippines and reported upon their condition. 
Early in 1900 the President appointed a new commission 
of five members to control and take charge of all matters 
connected with the construction of a government, and to 
appoint all necessary civil officers. This commission, of 
which Judge William H. Taft of Cincinnati was made 
president, entered upon its duties in the Philippines in 
Jnne. Schools were encouraged, local governments were 
established, and the Filipinos were given a large share of 
self-government. 



o 

, 'SULU 

tiORTH BOflNEj).^ ^ ISLANDS 

<Z.<i^' CELEBES SEA 






o3»^ 



THE PHILIPPINES. 



B. HIST. U. S.— 21 



352 MCKINLEY'S ADMINISTRATION [1900 

The Philippine Commission, enlarged 1)y the addition 
of three Filipino commissioners, continued for several 
years to exercise supreme authority in the islands. Its 
work was ratified by act of Congress (July 1, 1902), which 
also contained guarantees of liberty to the Filipinos and 
provided for a census of the islands and for a new plan of 
government to be put into effect by the Commission. The 
new plan included a legislature of two houses : one con- 
sisting of the Philippine Commission, and the other of a 
Philippine Assembly elected by the Filipinos. The gov- 
ernor, heads oi the Philippine executive departments, 
other members of the Commission, and judges of the 
Philippine supreme court were appointed by the President 
with the consent of the Senate. 

Cuba. — On the evacuation of Cuba by Spain, the 
United States assumed control temporarily. Such thor- 
ough sanitary reforms were brought about that the island 
was almost entirely freed from yellow fever. The city 
governments were soon turned over to the Cubans ; and 
delegates were elected to a convention which adopted a 
constitution for the government of Cuba as an independ- 
ent nation under the protection of the United States. 

When elections had been held under this constitution, 
the United States troops were withdrawn and the control 
of the island was turned over to its own government, 
May 20, 1902. 

Foreign Affairs. — Chinese Disorders. — In the summer 
of 1900 there was in China a native uprising against for- 
eigners. The Chinese government secretly encouraged 
the movement. Finally the Eui'opean powers, Japan, 
and the United States, all sent troops to Peking to rescue 
the ambassadors and other foreigners there and. to restore 
order. 



1900] POLITICAL PARTIES 353 

Political Parties. — The leading candidates for President 
and Vice President in 1900 were: Eepublican, William 
McKinley (renominated), and Theodore Roosevelt of New 
York; Democratic and People's party, William Jennings 
Bryan of Nebraska, and Adlai E. Stevenson of Illinois. 
Nominations were also made by the Prohibition party, the 
independent (anti-fusion) branch of the People's party, 
and other parties. The Republican candidates were 
elected. 

Assassination of McKinley. — At the Pan-American 
Exposition in Buffalo, President McKinley held a public 
reception, and shook hands with the people as they passed 
him in line. An anarchist, cunningly hiding a revolver 
in what seemed to be a bandaged hand, advanced in his 
turn, and at the President's greeting shot him twice 
(September 6, 1901). McKinley died of his wounds (Sep- 
tember 14), and on that day Vice-President Roosevelt 
took the oath of office as President (p. 369). 

INDUSTRIAL HISTORY 

During the Civil War, as we have seen, a vast amount 
of property was destroyed, — millions and millions of dol- 
lars' worth, — and the supreme energies of the nation were 
for four years directed in military channels. Hence there 
was a great disturbance, a great check in many kinds of 
industry. But within a short time after the war the 
country regained its former pi'osperity, and it then con- 
tinued to progress so rapidly that by the end of the 
century it stood first among the countries of the earth 
in wealth and in the amount and value of its industrial 
products. 

Between 1860 and 1900 the population of the country 



3.-. 4 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION 



moie thau doubled. The number of immigrauts who 
came each year varied from less than 100,000 to nearly 
800,000. Cities grew in population much more rapidly 
than country districts; in 1900 a third of all the people 
lived in cities or large towns. Also, the productive ca- 
pacity of nearly every workingman was increased by 
many inventions of labor-saving machines and new, eco- 
nomical methods of work. 

The patents issued by the United States between l.SOO 
and 1900 numbered over 600,000. They include improve- 
ments on almost every implement of peace or war, from 
the cannon to the telescope.* Among the notable Ameri- 
can inventions made or perfected since 1860 are vestibule 
and sleeping cars, automatic car coui)lers, the typewriter, 
typesetting machines, the telephone, and electi'ic lights.- 
Near the end of the century, machines were introduced 
even for recording votes in elections — a method that is 
quicker and more accurate than voting by ballot. 

' Tbe pi'intiiif; press of 
a century ajro would, at a 
irreat expense of lalior. 
print, on one side, alioiit 
250 sheets an hour. A new 
steau) " perfecting press " 
will in the same time turn 
out St6,(MM) four-patre ncws- 
l>apers folded, pasted, and 
printed on l)otli sides of 
each page. 

-JustastheNteani engine 
brought about the most not- 
able clianges in industrial methods before the Civil War, so new uses of electricity are 
the most striking features of mechanical development in the later period. Besides 
the telephone and electric lights there were now introduct-d the dynamo and the 
electric, motor — a means by which water power or steam power is transformed into 
electricity and then, after being carried to a distance by wire or stored up in storage 
batteries, is changed back into motive power with very little loss. In this way, for 
instance, part of the vast power of Niagara Falls is us<'d in Buftalo and other cities. 
Not only are trolley cars, automobiles, etc., driven by electric power, but also macbiDes 
used in hundreds of kinds of work, from running elevators to dressing meat. 




MODERN PRINTING PRESS. 



INDUSTRIAL HISTORY 355 

This period of our industrial liistory is obaracterized by 
the uiultiplicatiou and .growth of hirge eorpoi'ations. lu 
many cases the property or the stock of competing cor- 
poi-ations has been bought by a single corporation, which 
thus seeks to gain a monopoly of the business, and is 
commonly called a " trust." Many kinds of manufacture 
have come under the control of trusts, each with a capital 
stock of millions of dollars. On the other hand, trades 
unions have grown and developed until they include a 
controlling proportion of the skilled workingmen of the 
country. Disagreements between employers and trades 
unions have led to many thousands of strikes, fewer suc- 
cessful than unsuccessful ; but on the whole wages have 
gradually become higher and hours of labor fewer. 

Agriculture. — Since 1860 many new agricultural imple- 
ments and machines have been invented; the rotation of 
crops and the use of fertilizers have been reduced to an 
exact science ; and the cultivated area has been more 
than doubled. The cotton crop has increased to more 
than 10,000,000 bales a year, and the corn, wheat, tobacco, 
and other crops are far larger than before. This period is 
also marked by the great development of truck farming 
(the raising of fruits and vegetables for the supply of city 
markets) ; by the production of great quantities of vege- 
tables and fruits preserved in canning factories (an indus- 
try introduced during this period) ; and by the beginnings 
of beet cultivation on a large scale for the supply of sugar 
factories (since about 1890). The new Northwest has 
become important in agriculture, and in many of the 
Western States vast areas formerly arid have been made 
highly productive by irrigation. 

Herding. — The drier parts of the country near the Rocky 
Mountains have become a great pasture for millions of 



35U DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION 

cattle and slieep. Tlio cattle, sheep, swine, and other 
domestic animals kept in all parts of the country are 
greater in value than those of any other nation. 

During this period the making of cheese, and latei- of 
butter, which was for a long time solely a household 
manufacture, has in large part become the work of facto- 
ries ; the " condensing " of milk has become an important 
industry ; and there has been developed an elaborate sys- 
tem for carrying fresh milk into large cities every day by 
i-aili'oads — in some cases over a hundred miles. 

The work of slaughtering animals and preserving and 
disti'ibnting meats has been gathered largely into the 
hands of a few great corporations. 8uch improvements 
have been made in this industry — especially in the man- 
ner of keeping meat fresh by refrigeration — that Ave export 
vast (luantities of fresh meats as well as of live cattle. 

Lumbering. — To supply the greatly increased needs of 
our rapidly growing manufactures, lumbering has been 
carried on so extensively as to threaten the destruction of 
our remaining forests. Among the lunv demands made 
upon them, is that for vast (piantities of wood pulp from 
which the cheaper grades of paper are now made. On 
the other hand, wood now supplies a much smaller share 
of the fuel burned in our country than in former peiiods. 

Mining. — In this period the main regions of iron mining 
came to be the southern and western shores of Lake 
Superior (about 1880) and the southern Ajipalachian 
Mountains. Rich copper mines were opened in Montana 
and Arizona, coal mines in many States, new gold mines 
in Colorado, Alaska, and elsewhere, and i-ich silver mines 
in the Rocky Mountain region. 

The sinking of wells for petroleum, begun just before 
the Civil War, grew rapidly to a vast industry in western 



INDUSTRIAL HISTORY 357 

Pennsylvania and tlie neighboring States, and about the 
end of the century in California and Texas also. The 
refining of petroleum (producing gasoline, kerosene, vase- 
line, and many other things) took rank among our most 
important manufactures, meeting the home demand and 
furnishing large quantities for export. Natural gas, 
obtained, like petroleum, from wells drilled deep into the 
earth, supplied light and fuel for many towns and cities. 

Manufactures. — Our manufactures steadily increased, 
so that in 1900 they amounted to $13,000,000,000, about 
seven times the output of 1860. Not only did they meet 
a larger and larger share of the increasing home demand, 
but the amount of manufactures exported grew year by 
year until it formed nearly a third of the total exports. 

About a generation after the Civil War, many cotton 
mills, tobacco factories, and other manufactories were 
established in the South, which had theretofore been 
almost wholly an agricultural section. 

Many new articles were manufactured, and great im- 
provements in methods and processes were made in every 
branch of manufacture — improvements which in many 
cases lowered the price to the consumer besides increasing 
the manufacturer's profits and the laborers' wages. These 
are typical of many: From cotton seed, long considered 
almost worthless, was made an oil something like lin- 
seed oil and olive oil. Soon after the invention of bicy- 
cles more of them were manufactured in this country 
than in any other, as is the case also with many other 
machines. Ten thousand inventions were patented in 
the details of making boots and shoes, and so many differ- 
ent machines are a(?tually used that a single pair of shoes 
may l)e the work of twenty men, each doing a small part. 
In flour mills, rollers took the place of the older mill- 



358 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION 



stones. Steel was made largely from pig iron and be- 
came cheaper than the wrought iron from which it was 
formerly made ; and it came to be used as the chief ma- 
terial of thousands of things, from nails and tin cans to 
ships and the framework of thirty-story buildings. The 
production of cotton and woolen goods grew steadily in 
importance. The manufacture of silk grew to such pro- 
portions as to supply most of the home demand, though 
the United States consumes more silk goods than any 
other country. 

Transportation.— By the year 1900 the number of miles of 
railroad in tlu' United States was increased to more than 

190,000— more than in 
all other countries com- 
l)ined. Transportation 
by canal became of 
comparatively little im- 
portance, but that by 
large ships on the 
oceans and the Great 
Lakes increased vastly 
in amount. So much 
iron ore and grain were shipped down the Great Lakes 
from points on Lake Superior that more freight passed 
through the Soo Canal (on St. Marys River) than through 
the Suez Canal. 

The telegi'aph wires in the country increased to more 
than a million miles, and the telephone wires to a much 
greatci' length. 

Commerce. — What has just been said of transportation 
is enough to indicate the vast amount of our domestic 
commerce — which is fai- greater than our foreign (com- 
merce. Yet the foreign ti;i<le of the United States 




JKJDKKN LOCOMOTIVE. 



1867J 



NEW STATES 



359 



has grown to be over $2,000,000,000 a year. The chief 
exports are cotton, h'on and steel, pork and beef, wheat 
and flour, corn, petro- 
leum products, copper 
manufactures, lumber 
and articles of wood ; 
our chief imports, 
sugar, hides, chemi- 
cals, coffee, raw silk 
and silk goods, cotton 
goods, and rubber. 

Nearly all the Amer- 
ican shipping engaged 
in the foreign trade at 

the time of the Civil War was either destroyed by Con- 
federate cruisers or sold to foreigners to avoid destruc- 
tion. Since then it has been only in part replaced by 
modern ships, though their number is increasing; and 
most of our imports and exports are carried in foreign 
vessels. 




Till; NEW \ui;k, A .M()1)1,i;.n .sti.a.m^hip. 



NEW STATES (1865-1896) 

Nebraska, the thirty-seventh State, was admitted to the Union March 1, 1867. The 
Territory of Nebraska was organized in 1854 (p. 225). At first it inchided all of the 
Louisiana purchase north of Kansas and west of the Missouri and White Earth rivers ; 
the present north limit was fixed in 1861 and the west limit in 1863. 

Colorado was admitted as a State August 1, 1876. Congress decided to admit it March 
3, 1875, and its constitution was ratified by its people July 1, 1876. Its territory came 
partly from the Louisiana purchase and partly from Mexico. It was organized as a 
Territory in 1861, with its present boundaries. The first settlement was Denver. 

North Dak-Ota and South Dakota were admitted Noveudicr 2, 1889. They had pre- 
viously formed the Territory of Dakota, which was organized in 1861. Montana entered 
the Union November 8, 1889, and Washiiit/fnn November 11 of the same year. In 1890 
Idaho (.July 3) and Wyoming (July 10) were admitted. Tliis group of six States was 
traversed by the Lewis and Clark expedition in 1804 06 (p. 178), but their rapid settle- 
ment did not take place till after the Civil War. Rince the building of the great trans- 
continental railroads their growth has been remarkable. The Dakotas and most of 
Montana and Wyoming are from the Louisiana purchase ; Washington. Idalio, and 



860 PROGRESS IN CIVILIZATION 

parts of Montana and Wyoming arc from the Orejroii fouiitry, and part of Wyoniinff 
is from Mexico. Washington Tcrritoiy, organized in 1H53, liad the limits shown on 
page 252 from 1859 till the formation of Idaho Territory in 1863. The Territory of Idaho 
at first included also Montana and nearly all of Wyoming; l)nt in 1864 M'ontana was 
made a separate Territory and most of Wyoming was added temporarily to Dakota. 
The Territory of Wyoming was organized in 1868. 

riah, the forty-fifth State, was admitted to the Union January 4, 1896. The Mormons 
made their first settlement there (p. 2i:i) when Utah was part of Mexico. They 
rapidly increased in numbers, and for a time were inclined to oppose the federal au- 
thority. Congiess organized the Territory of Utah in 1850 (pp. 226, 2.52), and later 
made laws designed to break up the practice of i)olygaTny there. Utah asked a<l- 
mission to the Union, but this was denied until after the Mormon Church had given 
up polygamy aud the people of Utah had adopted a constitution forever prohibiting it. 



PROGRESS IN CIVILIZATION 

Having traced the history of our country down to the 
end of the nineteenth century, let us glance back and note 
the successive steps in its growth. 

Territorial Development (pp. 361, o49). — The treaty with 
Great Britain (September 3, 1783) fixed the boundaries of 
the United States as the Atlantic Ocean, the .Great Lakes, 
the Mississippi River, and the north line of Florida. 

Louisiana was purchased of Fi'ance in 1803 (pp. 176, 178). 
Florida was purchased of Spain (p. 200) by the treaty of 
1819.' This treaty also ended a dispute over a strip of 
coast about fifty miles wide, lying between Florida and 
the Mississippi Kivor, which was considerccl by Spain as a 
part of Florida, but had been seized by the United States 
(1812, 1813) as part of the Louisiana purchase.- Texas 
was annexed in 1845 (pp. 214, 246). The cession of 1848 

'The date usually given to a treaty is the date of the instrument itself — the date 
when it is first signed by the agents of the two nations. But the treaty is not binding 
till it is ratified by the proper liome authority in each government. This treaty with 
Spain, for instance, was signed February 22, 1819, was ratified by the king of Spain 
October 24, 1820, and by the I'nited States Senate February 19, 1821. 

- Part of this strip was added to the State of Louisiana in 1812, a few days after the 
admission of that State ; the rest forms parts of Mississippi and Alabama. 



362 



PROGRESS IN CIVILIZATION 



(p. 220), giving tlie United States iiu immense territory, was 
a forced purchase, resulting from our successful war with 
Mexico. The cession of 1853 was secured by peaceful 
means (p. 228). Alaska was purchased in 1867. In 1898- 
1900 we acquired several island possessions, some peace- 
ably and some through the war with Sjjain (pp. 346-348). 

In 1790 the area of the republic was about 800,000 
square miles.' It is now nearly 4,000,000 square miles. 

The Population.— In 1800, Portland, Me., Providence, 
R. I., and Richmond, Va., were only small towns. Lan- 
caster, Pa., was the largest inland place. St. Louis, New 
Orleans, and Mobile were then in foreign territory. 
Chicago was for years a mere trading station, surrounded 
by the wigwams of savages. 

The population of the entire United States at the time 
of the first census was less than 4,000,000. The census of 




MOVEMENT OK THE CENTEK OF POPULATION. 

1900 showed over 75,000,000. The center of population 
in 1790 was 23 miles east of Baltimore; in 1900 it liad 
moved westward to a point near Columbus, in southeastern 
Indiana. In 1790 there were onlv 6 cities having a pop- 



1 Less than half of this area was then oconpiod. Most of our fine farms, and the 
sites of many lar^'c oiticM, were then " wihl lands." The small vahi« placed upon them 
may be seen from the fact that in 1791 the Stale of New York sold 5,500,000 acres at an 
average price of eightefeu centa au acre. 



THE POST OFFICES 368 

Illation of over 8000; in 1900 there were 545. The largest 
city in 1790 was New York, with 33,000 inhabitants; in 
1900 New York had over 3,300,000. 

The Post Offices in 1790 numbered 75. Between New 
York and Philadelphia there were only five mails a week, 
and it required two days for a letter to go this short dis- 
tance.' They were generally carried throughout the 
country by men on horseback, the saddle-bags easily 
holding the scanty number of letters and papers then 
sent. Mails were forwarded between New York and 
Boston three times a week in summer, and twice in 
winter. In remote places the mail was allowed to 
accumulate until enough was secured to pay the cost 
of transmission. It was a favored rural village that 
had a weekly mail. The time of its arrival was locally 
known as the "post day," and when the postman came 
he found a crowd assembled to receive the few letters 
he brought, and to hear the newspaper read by the 
minister or landlord. 

In 1900 we had over 75,000 post offices. Not only were 
the mails frequent between post offices, but mail matter 
was carried to people's homes and offices in all large 
cities. In some country districts, also, a beginning was 
being made in the great rural free delivery system. 

Education. — The idea of popular education was brought 
to the New World by our forefathers. Even in the wil- 
derness, while the wolf prowled about the log house, and 

1 The tedious mode of travel in the early days is well illustrated in the following 
incident : In 1824-25 an efl'ort was made in Congress to admit Oregon. Mr. Dickinson 
of New Jersey declared that "the project of a State upon the Pacific was an absurdity. 
The distance that a member of Congress from Oregon would be obliged to travel in 
coming to the seat of government and returning home would be 9200 miles. If he 
should travel thirty miles per day, it would require 306 days; allowing for Sundays, 
forty-four, it would amount to 350 days. This would leave the member a fortnight to 
rest at Washington before he commenced his journey home." 



304 PKUUKES.S IN CIVILIZATION 

the cry of the Avild eat was still heard, the sehool and 
even the college were established,' 

A part of the public lands of the United States has, 
from the beginning, been set aside for purposes of educa- 
tion. The ordinance of 1787 for the government of the 
Northwest Territory (p. 163) devoted " section sixteen of 
every township " for maintaining public schools, and, in 
making this generous provision, stipulated that " religion, 
morality, and knowledge being necessary to good govern- 
ment and th(^ happiness of mankind, schools and the 
means of education shall be forever encouraged." lu 
1848, when Oregon was organized as a Territory (p. 247), 
the "thirty-sixth section" was also set apart for schools; 
and since then each new State has received both sections 
for educational purposes. '^ At various times, also, other 
lands have been given, so that in all al)Out 140,000,000 
acres have been devoted to the States for the suppoi't of 
common schools." So important has been this subject in 
the minds of our legislators that, in the midst of the Civil 
War, when the national government was straining every 
nerve to raise and equip armies to preserve its very exist- 
ence, Congi-ess took time to consider and jiass a bill (18G2) 
gi'anting 30,000 acres of public lands for every senator 
and representative in Congress, in order to maintain, in 

' The Revolution left all tbi; institutions of learning paralyzed. But In less than a 
month after Wasliin^rtou resigned hisroniniission. Governor George Clinton's message 
to the legislature of New York eontained these menjorable words : " Perhaps there is 
scaree any thing more worthy your attention than the revival and eneouragement of 
seminaries of learning, and nothing by which wc; ean more satisfactorily express our 
gratitude to the Supreme Being for His past fa\ors, since purity and virtue are gener- 
ally the otlspring of an enlightened understanding." The Btate was poor, and savages 
occupied a largo part of the region west of Albany ; yet the legislature rose to tht^ 
grandeur of the concejition, and at once established a Board of Regents to superintend 
the interests of higher education. Within a month after its organization, this board 
authorized the "purchase of such a philosopltical ai>paratus for Columbia College as 
Dr. Franklin, Mr. Adams, aiul Mr. Jefferson [then representatives at the French court] 
should advise." 



EDUCATION 365 

each State, what has since been known as an Agricul- 
tural College. 

In consequence of these and equally liberal provisions 
on the part of State governments, aided by the munificent 
gifts of many persons in pi'ivate life, the progress of edu- 
cation in the United States has been marvelous. Instead 
of nine colleges, as in pre-Revolutionary times, we have 
five hundred, several of which are worth over $10,000,000, 
and many over $1,000,000. The common school is fos- 
tered in every part of the country. The daily free-school 
bell now calls together, in the States and Territories of 
the Union, over 15,000,000 children, who are being edu- 
cated at an annual expense of over $200,000,000. 

Literature. — In colonial times there were few American 
books, and those chiefly upon theology. The earliest 
theological writer was Cotton Mather; and the greatest 
was Jonathan Edwards, one of the ablest theologians of 
all time. Benjamin Franklin, however, by his sensible 
writings on many subjects, stands forth as one of the 
leading colonial authors. 

During the agitation that finally ended in the separa- 
tion from the mother country, politics became the univer- 
sal theme of discussion. The contest was decided by the 
pen quite as certainly as by the sword. Patrick Henry, 
Otis, the elder Adams, Franklin, Dickinson, Freneau, 
Trumbull,^ and Hopkinson aroused their countrymen, first 
to attempt, and then to endure, while, at the same time, 
they sought to enlist in their cause the sympathies of 
mankind. 

After the war had decided the issue, and it came to 
building up a united nation out of a loose confederation of 

' Whipple says, " TnimbuU's McFiiigul eeut the rustic voliiuteers l;inj:liin«- into the 
tanks of Washinjitou and Greene." 



;5l)(i I'KOGRESS IX CIVILIZATION 

States, Jay, Hamilton, Madison,' Jefferson, John Adams, 
Washington, Fisher Ames, and others were most efficient 
in organizing and shaping the policy of the new govern- 
ment. As the Declaration of Indej^endinice was chiefly the 
work of Jefferson, so the Constitution of the United States 
was that of Hamilton and Madison. 

In all history an era of strife has been followed by one 
of marked mental vigor. Thus, as one would expect, the 
generation that dii-ectly followed the adoption of the Con- 
stitution gave us the classics of American literature. 

Irving was the first American author to secure genei'al 
recognition at home and abroad. In 1809 appeared his 
inimitable Dicclnch Knickcrlxxkcr^s Ifisfori/ of New York, 
and, about ten years later, his Sketch Book. The creatures 
of his fancy quickly passed into the life of the people. 
Even now, Ichabod Crane and Rip Van Winkle are as 
familiar to us as if we had lived in Sleepy Hollow and 
known them all our days. Bryant wrote his Thamifopsis 
in 1812, when he was only eighteen years old. Cooper 
laid the foundation of American romance. His descriptions 
of American scenery, the Indian, and life at sea, were 
eagerly read ou both sides of the Atlantic. Simms wrote 
of Southern scenes and characters. Poe, the most imagin- 
ative of our poets, made himself famous by The Bells and 
The Baren. Emerson's essays, by their original thought 
and brilliant style, caused at once a pi'ofound impression. 
Hawthorne's Sairlet Leitcr, House of the Seven GoIjIcs, and 
Marhle Faun Yn,vike\{ him with the great novelists of all 
time. Longfellow's poems touched the heart of the peo- 
ple, and quickly found their way into the reading books 

' Hamilton, J.iy, aud Madison wroto a eerips of powerful and convinfinj; essayfl 
favorinf; the adoption of tlic Constitution. These we^l^ at first piiblislied :is news- 
paper artifle«, but were afterwards eollo.cted in a volume known as tlie Frdrral'mt—Ww 
'• politieal classic of llie United States." 



LITERATURE 367 

of the schools; and the verses of Whittier, the Quaker 
poet and abolitionist, have been repeated on almost every 
high-school stage in the land. Lowell, a brilliant essayist 
and poet, wrote much to stir the North in opposition to 
slavery. Dr. Holmes wrote many essays, novels, and 
poems. 

In no branch of literature have American authors 
achieved greater success than in history. Prescott wrote 
of Spain and Spanish America ; Motley, of the Nether- 
lands; Bancroft, of the United States. Parkman is the 
author of a series of charming and valuable books cover- 
ing the history of the French in America. Fiske's works 
also make entertaining many chapters of our own history. 

To chronicle the constantly increasing list of our authors 
and their works would require a volume of itself. Ameri- 
can authors are known and their writings read in all 
parts of the civilized world. 

In journalism our progress has been especially marked. 
At the opening of the Revolution, only 37 papers circu- 
lated in the colonies. There are now issued in the United 
States over 20,000 newspapers and periodicals. Popular 
education has made us a peculiarly enlightened nation, and 
statistics prove that " our people read as much as all the 
rest of the world who read at all." 

Philanthropic and Religious Institutions. — In nothing 
do we see the ameliorating and elevating influences of 
our time more than in the generosity with which chari- 
table institutions and philanthropic associations have, of 
late years, been founded and supported. As the country 
has grown in size, population, and wealth, relief has been 
more widely extended to human suffering, and efforts 
have been more urgently made to elevate the moral and 
religious condition of oui* race the world over. 



3U8 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS 



1. Pro^rT-ss ;iiiil I'lobloTns of Tliis l-:pocli. 

f 1. UisbaiidiiiK uf the Union Army. 

Kecoiistruction Policy of the President 



Johnson's 
Administration. 



3. Cxrant's 

Administration. 
(l.sO'.»-77.) 



Hayes's 

Administration. 
(1877-81.) 



Garfield and 

Arthur's 
Administration. 

(IHHl-85.) 



Cleveland's 

First 
Administration. 

(18K5-«u.) 



Harrison's 
Admin is ti'ation. 
(188'.)-<)M.) 



Cleveland's 

Second 
Administration. 
(1!S'.):{-U7.) 



2. Uoniostic Att'aii-s. 

'.i. Forei'.'n Alfairs. 

4. Political Parties. 

1. Dinnestic Affairs. 



V. 



Foreign Affairs. 
Political Parties. 

Domestic Affaire. 
Political Parties. 



1. Domestic Affairs. 



2. Political Parties. 



1. Domestic Affairs. 



•2. I'olitical Parties. 



1. Domestic Affairs. 



2. Fi>rei(in Affairs. 

3. Political Parties. 



1, Domestic Affairs. 



Foreign Affairs. 
Political Parties. 



McKinley's 
Administration. 
(18'.»7-1901.) 



1. Domestic Affairs. 



Tliirteenth Amendment. 
KiToiiBt ruction folicy of Congrei 
did States .Admitted. 

lent of the President 
urteentli Amendment 

J a. Krencli in ilexico. 
h. Laying of the jVtlantic C'ahlc. 
I c. Purchase of Alaska. 
I. d. Tr 



I i/. .Seceded Sti 

e. Inipeachnii 

L/. The Fourte 



treaty \4ith China. 



a Pacific Railroads. 

b. The Fifteenth Amendment. 

c. Fires. 

d. Hailroad Panic. 
e Indian Wars. 

/. Centennial Exhibition. 
Treaty of Washington. 



\l 



a. rr. S. Troops in the Sontli With.lrawn. 
Kail road Strike. 
Changes in Currency. 



a. Assassination of Preeident Cartield. 

b. Accession of Arthur. 

c. Chinese Exclusion. 

d. Civil Service Bill. 

e. Letter Postage. 

/. New Navy Begun. 

■ a. Presidential Succession Law. 

b. Electoral Count Act. 

c. Strikes ami Labor DisturbanceB. 

d. Earthquakes. 

e. Statue of Liberty. 

/. Interstate Commerce A<t. 

a. The Johnstown Hood. 
6. The TariH. 
r. Pensions. 

d. Ballot Keform. 

e. Oklahoma. 

/. Indian Troubles. 
g Labor Troubles. 
*. Chinese Exclusion. 

International Copyright. 



u. World's Columbian Exposition. 
6. Ke|>eal of Silver Purchase Law. 

c. The Tariff. 

d. Kepeai of the Force Bill. 

e. Great Kailroad Strike. 

a. Hawaii. 

b. The Venezuelan Boundary. 



2. War with Spain. 
(1898.) 



It: 



Tlie Tariff. 

Gold .Standard Act. 

Galveston Disaster. 



3. Insular Affairs. 



Fighting in West Indies. 
I d. Peace. 
L e. Cost of the War. 

a. HawaiL 

b. Tutuila. 

c. Wake. 

d. Porto Rico. 

e. Philippines. 
/ Cuba. 

A Vnrt^tn^ A <*«:«.. 5 " Chinese Disorders. 

4. Foreign Affairs. > ^ ^,^3^^ Boundary. 

5. Political Parties. 

6. Assassination of McKinley. 

10. Roosevelt's Administration, etc. (to be added by the pupil). 

11. Industrial History. 

12. New States. 

13. Progress in Civilization. 



RECENT EVENTS 



ROOSEVELT'S ADMINISTRATION (1901-1909)1 



Isthmian Canal. — The project of constructing a ship 
canal across the Isthmus of Panama, or near it, occupied 
public attention for many 
years. A French company 
spent millions in an at- 
tempt to build a canal 
across the isthmus, but 
failed through poor man- 
agement before the work 
was half done. Our gov- 
ernment had a thorough 
survey made of this route, 
and also of the Nicaragua 
route across the southern 
part of Central America. 
The owners of the French 
canal having offered to sell 

Copyright, 1898. by Rockwood, N. Y. . 

their rights and property theodore roosevelt. 

for $40,000,000, Congress passed a law (1902) authorizing 

the President to purchase and complete it, or to build the 

» Theodore Roosevelt was born in New York, October 27, 1858 ; died, 1919. In his 
boyhood he was weak in body but strong in spirit, and in time he became robust. 
He took great interest in athletics. He graduated at Harvard in 1880, and two years 
later became a member of the New York legislature, where he secured the passage of a 
civil service reform law. In 1889-95 he was a member of the national Civil Service 
Commission (p. 327). He resigned this position to become a police commissioner in 
New York city, where he was noted for his strict enforcement of the laws. Appointed 
Assistant Secretary of the Navy (1897), he bad much to do in making our naval forces 
ready for the war with Spain ; and as lieutenant colonel and afterwards colonel of the 
" Rough Riders " he played a conspicuous part in the Santiago campaign. In the fall 
of 1898 he was elected governor of New York, and in 1900 Vice President. 

369 




370 EOOSEVELT'S ADMINISTRATION 

Nicaragua canal in caso satisfactory title and control of 
the Panama route could not be obtained. 

The next year, accordingly, a treaty was negotiated 
with Colombia, by the terms of which the United States 
was to have control of a strip of land across the Isthmus 
of Panama on the payment of $10,000,000 and an annual 
rental of $250,000. But the Colombian Congress rejected 
this treaty, whereupon the ColomT)ian province of Panama 
seceded (November 3, 1903), and was promptly recognized 
as an independent rei)ublic by the United States and 
other countries. A new treaty was then negotiated with 
Panama, similar to the rejected Colombian treat}". 

Chinese Exclusion (1902). — The exclusion of Chinese 
laborers (pp. 327, 333) was continued. The law was also 
applied to the islands belonging to the United States. 
Chinese laborers are not allowed to enter any of our in- 
sular possessions, and those already living there — many 
thousand in number — can not move from one island 
group to another or to the mainland pai-t of our country. 

Anthracite Coal Strike (1902). — Through the organiza- 
tion of labor and of capital in our country, it had come 
about that the wages of workers in most of the bitumi- 
nous coal mines were fixed each year by agreement between 
representatives of the miners and of the mine owners. 
The miners' union proposed a similar arrangement for 
the anthracite mines, but the mine owners declined. In 
May, 1902, the anthracite miners struck for higher pay 
and shorter hours. They were aided by contributions 
from the bituminous workers and others. The strike 
lasted so long that the resulting shortage of coal became 
a serious menace to the public health in some cities and 
to the many industries dependent on hard coal for fuel. 
President Eoosevelt finally proposed that the questions 



ALASKA BOUNDARY 



371 



at issue be submitted to the arbitration of a commission 
selected by him. Both sides having ajDproved of the com- 
missioners appointed, work was resumed late in October. 

Alaska Boundary After the discovery of rich gold 

deposits in the Klondike region in northwestern Canada 
(1896), many miners 
crossed the southern 
part of Alaska on 
their way thither, 
and many supplies 
were sent by the 
same route. This 
gave importance to 
a disj)ute over the 
Alaska Ijoundary, 
and by a treaty with 
Great Britain in 
1903 the question 
was left to the de- 
cision of an arbitra- 
tion tribunal of six 
members, three being appointed by each country. Our 
claim placed the boundary thirty-live miles from the coast 
of the mainland; the Canadian claim placed it so as to 
give several seaports to Canada. The matter depended 
on the interpretation of an old treaty between Russia and 
Great Britain. The decision of the majority of the tri- 
bunal sustained the chief contention of the United States, 
namely, that Alaska should include a continuous strip of 
the mainland coast. 

Department of Commerce and Labor (1903). — A ninth 
mcml)er was added to the President's Cabinet^ in the 

1 The eighth member is the Secretary of Agriculture, added in 1889. See also p. 329. 




ALASKA BOUNDARY. 



•.\7J IIUOSEVELT'S ADMINISTRATION 

person of the Secretary of Commerce and Labor. The 
work of the new executive department was to promote the 
interests of commerce, manufactures, fisheries, and labor, 
largely by collecting and publishing information on these 
subjects. Ten years later the department was divided into 
two, headed respectively by the Secretary of Commerce 
and the Secretary of Labor. Thus the Cabinet was made 
to consist of ten members. 

Pacific Cable. — Work on the first submarine cable 
(p. olO) across the Pacific Ocean was completed July 4^ 
1903. Tliis extends fi'om San Francisco to the Hawaiian 
Islands, Guam, and the Philippines. 

Political Parties. — The candidates of the two great par- 
ties for President and Vice President in 1904 were : Re- 
publican, Theodore Roosevelt, of New York, and Charles 
W. Fairbanks, of Indiana ; Democratic, Judge Alton B. 
Parker, of New York, and Henry G. Davis, of West Vir- 
ginia. The Socialist, Prohibition, and People's parties 
also made nominations. The Republican candidates were 
elected ))y a \ery lai'ge majority. 

Earthquake and Fire at San Francisco. — Just before sun- 
rise on April 18, 1906, part of California was shaken by 
an earth(piake. Many buildings in many places were dam- 
aged and some we're wrecked, causing the death of many 
hundreds of people. In San Francisco fire broke out in 
the ruins and laged for several days, luitil nearly all the 
business part of the city and over half the residences 
were in ashes. A vast nudtitude of i)eople, driven from 
tlieir homes, sought shelter in tents. Martial law was 
declared, thieves were shot witliout ceremony, pass(3rs-by 
were compelled at pistol's point to help clear streets and 
bury the dead. Famine threatened the stricken city but 
was averted by the prompt aid alforded by Federal and 



INTERSTATE CO M M E li C E 37;i 

State governments and by hundreds of individuals all over 
the country. The people of San Francisco, undaunted 
by their double disaster, began at once to rebuild the city. 

Interstate Commerce. — In spite of the act of 1887 (p. 330) 
and some later laws, favored shippers were still given 
various unfair advantages in the service and charges of 
railroads. In 1906 Congress greatly enlarged the power 
of the Interstate Commerce Commission to supervise rail- 
roads, express companies, and other common carriers' 
operating in more than one state, and even authorized it 
to fix new freight and passenger rates in place of any it 
deemed to be unjust or unreasonable. 

Besi<les this hiw to regulate interstate transportation, 
Congress passed several acts to regulate the quality of 
goods entering into interstate commerce. Efficient in- 
spection of meat packing establishments was provided, at 
a cost of $3,000,000 a year. Adulteration or misbranding 
of any foods, drugs, medicines, or liquors manufactured 
anywhere for sale in another state, was forbidden under 
heavy penalties. 

New State. — An act was passed (1906) providing for the 
admission of Oklahoma (p. 332), including the Indian Ter- 
ritory, as one State.^ Under this act the new State was 
admitted November 16, 1907. 



1 Pipe lines for transporting petroleum were included in the provisions of this act. 
Another law affecting the petroleum industry was an act removing the internal 
revenue tax from alcohol to be used in the arts, or for fuel, light, or power. The tax on 
alcohol had previously been so high as to prevent its extensive use in competition with 
kerosene, gasoline, or other petroleum products. Following the example of some 
other countries, the United States now removed the tax, on condition that the alcohol 
be mixed with certain other substances that spoil it for use in any medicine or drink. 

2 The same act provided also for the admission of a new State of Arizona, to con- 
sist of the two Territories of Arizona and New Mexico, on condition that each Terri- 
tory, voting separately, should favor uniting. But in the election Arizona voted 
against the union, so both Territories remained Territories. 



374 



ROOSEVELT'S ADMIN ISTRATION 



Insular Affairs. — The insurrection in the Philippines 
having been entirely suppressed, the first Philippine Assem- 
bly was elected (p. 352) and began its sessions in October, 
1907. After the second presidential election in Cuba, the 
defeated party began a revolt, which gained such headway 
that the United States government was asked to intervene 

and restore order. For two 
years, therefore, the island 
was again under the con- 
trol of a governor appointed 
by our President, and 
backed by United States 
troops. But in January, 
1909, our forces were again 
withdrawn, and for the 
second time Cuba was 
turned over to a govern- 
ment of its own choosing. 

Political Parties. — In 
1908 both of the great 
parties declared in favor 
of many reforms. Their 
candidates for President 
and Vice President were: Republican, William H. Taft,* of 
Ohio, and James S. Sherman, of New York; Democratic, 
William J. Bryan, of Nebraska, and John W. Kern, of In- 
diana. Nominations were made also by the Socialist, 




Copyright, I'.ms, >,y l>a'h tti; 



WILLIAM II. TAKT. 



'William Howard Taft was born in Cinoinnati in 1S57. He was graduatwl at 
Yale in 1878 and at the Cincinnati College Law Scliool in 1880. After several years' 
experience as assistant prosecuting attoi-nev and lawyer he was clio.sen judge of the 
superior court of Cincinnati. In 1S90 he became .solicitor-general of tiie United 
States; in 1892 United States circuit judge ; in 1000 president of the Philippine 
Commission; and in 1901 governor of tiie Philippines. From 1904 to 1908 he was 
Secretary of War, and one of the most trusted advisers of President Roosevelt. 



TAFT'S ADMINISTRATION 375 

Prohibition, and other parties. The Republican candidates 
were elected. President Taft was inaugurated March 4, 
1909. 

TAFT'S ADMINISTRATION (1909-1913) 

Tariff of 1909. — President Taft promptly called a special 
session of Congress, which after much deliberation passed 
a new tariff law. By this act some duties were lowered, 
and some were increased. A tax of one per cent was also 
laid on the net earnings of corporations in excess of $5000 
a year. By joint resolution, there was proposed an amend- 
ment to the Constitution giving Congress full power to 
levy a tax on incomes.^ This amendment was declared 
adopted in 1913. 

New States. — In 1910 Congress provided for the later 
admission of New Mexico and Arizona as States. They 
were accordingly admitted early in 1912. 

Census. — The census of 1910 showed a population of 
nearly 92,000,000 in the main lx)dy of the United States. 
New York City then had over 4,750,000 inhabitants, or 
more than there were in the whole United States when 
Washington was President. " 

Government Reforms. — During Taft's administration, 
and for some years before it, the people gave much 
thought to new plans of government, both in the nation 

1 The year 1909 is also noted for a sledge trip to the north pole by Robert E. 
Peary, of Maine, who had gained much skill in Arctic exploration during several 
previous expeditions in Greenland and the polar ocean. Thus it was an American 
who first reached the pole, succeeding where scores of earlier explorers had failed. 
In 1909, also, the United States War Department bought its first aeroplane, or fly- 
ing machine, from the Wright brothers, of Dayton, Ohio. These men, Orville and 
Wilbur Wright, had perfected their machine not long before, after many years of 
study and experiment. Other men had laid the foundations of the science and art 
of flying in heavier-than-air machines, but the Wright brothers were the first who 
made actual sustained flights. 



376 



TAFT'.S ADMIXISTllATION 



and in the states. For example, it was often proposed 
that United States senators sliould be elected by vote of 
the people instead of by the state legislatures. Finally in 
1912 Congress submitted to the states a proposed amend- 
ment to the Constitution, providing for this change. Be- 
tween 1900 and 1912 many states altered their constitutions 
so as to provide for the initiative and referendum, giving 
the people power to propose laws and to adopt or to reject 
them. Some states adopted the recall, a plan by which a 
local or state officer can, by vote of the people, be deprived 
of office before his term expires. A new plan of city gov- 
ernment, called the commission plan, was adopted for 
more than 200 cities during the first twelve years of the 
century. This plan gives great power and responsibility 

to a few men elected by the 
voters of the whole city. 
Many states adopted direct 
primaries, by which the can- 
didates of political parties 
are selected by popular vote 
instead of by conventions. 
Before 1900 only four states 
had permitted women to 
vote on the same terms as 
men. In 1910-1912 five 
more states granted equal 
suffrage to women, making 
nine in all. 

Political Parties. — In 
19 12, primary elections were 
held in a number of states for the selection of delegates to 
the national convention of each party, and fur the ex- 




Woodrow Wilson. 



TAFT'S ADMINISTRATION 377 

pression of the voters' preference for presidential can- 
didates. In those states, a majority of the Republican 
votes were cast for Theodore Roosevelt. A majority of 
the delegates from other states, however, opposed him, and 
the Republican national convention renominated President 
Taft. Thereupon a new Progressive party was organized, 
and Roosevelt was named as its candidate. The Demo- 
cratic nominee for President was Wood row Wilson of 
New Jersey ; and for Vice President, Thomas R. Marshall 
of Indiana. The Democratic candidates were elected by a 
very large majority of the electoral vote.^ 

WILSON'S ADMINISTRATION (1913- Y 

The Seventeenth Amendment. — Early in the first year 
of the new administration the proposed amendment pro- 
viding for the popular election of senators was ratified by 
the necessary number of States and became a part of the 
Constitution. In 1914-1918 six States granted equal 
suffrage to women, making fifteen such States in all. 

Acts of Congress. — At the call of President Wilson, 
Congress met in special session April 7, for the purpose of 
revising the tariff. There was a Democratic majority in 
each house of Congress. The Underwood Act, passed early 
in October, lowered many tariff duties and imposed a pro- 
gressive tax on incomes. The Federal Reserve Act, passed in 
December, strengthened the national bank system by creat- 
ing a numberof federal reserve banks, with important powers. 

'The popular vote was about 6. .300,000 Democratic, 4,100,000 Progressive, 
a,500,000 Republican, 900,000 Socialist, and 200,000 Prohibition. 

2 Woodrow Wilson was born in Virginia, 18.56; he was educated at Princeton 
and at the University of Virginia. He practiced law for two years in the South 
and then became a college professor. In 1902 he was made president of Princeton 
University, and in 1910 he was elected governor of New Jersey. He is the author 
of several widely read books on history and government. 



378 WILSON'S ADMIXISTMATION 

In 1914 Congress continued its labors and passed several 
acts of importance. One of them created a Trade Com- 
mission, to supervise corporations engaged in interstate 
trade, excepting the railroads and other companies already 
controlled by the Interstate Connnerce Commission. 

War in Mexico and Europe. — After many years of peace, 
under the strong rule of President Diaz, Mexico became 
the scene of revolution and civil war. The successor of 
Diaz was overthrown and murdered, and General Huerta 
made himself dictator. President Wilson would not recou;- 
nize him as the lawful president of Mexico ; and Huerta's 
opponents in Mexico, the '■ Constitutionalists," finally suc- 
ceeded in driving him from the country, in July, 1U14. 
Meanwhile, in April. United States troo})s took the Mexi- 
can port of Vera Cruz from Huerta's possession, in order 
to protect American lives and property in Mexico by en- 
forcing respect for our government. The United States, 
however, did not become involved in war. The American 
troops were withdrawn in November. Rivalry between the 
Mexican leaders Carranza and Villa led to further war and 
acts of violence. Carranza secured control of most of the 
country, and his government was recognized by President 
Wilson. In March, 1916, Villa raided Columbus, New 
Mexico, killing civilians and soldiers of the United States. 
American forces were sent into Mexico in pursuit of Villa, 
and defeated several bands of his men. 

The United States was also seriously affected by the 
great war that broke out among European powers in 1914. 
President Wilson enforced strict neutrality ; but the enor- 
mous loss of life and property in Europe, and the interfer- 
ence with our trade, caused great financial disturbances in 
our country. A later result of the war was to increase the 
demand for many American products. 



WILSON'S ADMINISTRATION 379 

Panama Canal. — During Roosevelt's and Taft's adminis- 
trations work on the Panama Canal went steadily forward. 
At last, in 1914, the canal was completed and opened for 
traffic. Colonel Goethals, who had control of the work, 
was made the first governor of the Panama Canal Zone. 

Presidential Campaign of 1916. — The Republican and 
Progressive national conventions met in Chicago the same 
week in June, 1916 ; and an attempt was made to secure 
united action in naming a candidate for President. This 
failing, the Progressives nominated Ex-President Roosevelt, 
and the Republicans nominated Justice Charles Evans 
Hughes of the United States Supreme Court, formerly gov- 
ernor of New York. Roosevelt declined the nomination, 
and supported Hughes. The Democrats renominated Pres- 
ident Wilson, who was reelected by a close vote. 

Danish West Indies. — ^At various times in the past, 
vain attempts were made to purchase the three Danish 
islands east of Porto Rico, named St. Thomas, St. John, 
and St. Croix. They are of small area and population, but 
are important because of the excellent harbor in St. 
Thomas. In 1916, at last, a treaty was made with Den- 
mark, providing for the purchase of the islands for 
$25,000,000. 

Porto Rico and the Philippines. — New laws were passed 
by Congress for the government of the Philippines- (1916) 
and Porto Rico (1917), providing in each case for a legisla- 
ture of two houses, both elected by the people, and for a 
governor appointed by the President. The citizens of 
Porto Rico were made citizens of the United States ; but 
on the contrary it was declared to be the purpose of the 
United States to grant the Philippines independence " as 
soon as a stable government can be established therein." 



380 WILSON'S ADMIXISTH ATION [1911 

THE GREAT WAR 

\\Tieii the Great War Ijegan in Europe in the summer of 
1914, most of the American people l)elieved that our coun- 
try should 1)6 neutral. They believed that we ought not 
to interfere in the quarrels of the European nations. But 
three years later we were at war with Germany, and our 
war policy was heartily supported by the vast majority. 
In fact, the American people were more nearly unanimous 
in support of this war than of any other war in our histoiy. 
\Vhat caused the war? How was our countiy drawn into 
it? A\Tiat were the issues at stake? These are questions 
that eveiy American should understand. 

Europe before the War. — When the United States se- 
cured its independence in 1783, nearly all the countries of 
Europe were monarchies in fact as well as in name. They 
were actually under the rule of kings, or of kings and a 
small class of nobles. Most of the common people had no 
political rights, and in some countries they were still serfs 
as in the Middle Ages, each l)ound to lal^or part of the time 
for the lord of the land on which he lived. But during the 
next hundred and thirty years great changes took place. 
In countiy after country serfdom was abolished, monarchs 
were overthrown or were forced to grant constitutions, and 
the people gained a large share in the government, usually 
by electing one house of the lawmaking body. 

Russia and Germany, however, lagged far behind the 
rest of Europe in political progress. In 1914 they were still 
autocracies, or nearly absolute monarchies, under emperors 
and noliles who governed as they pleased, either defying or 
controlling the popular will.^ In Austria-Hungary also the 

• The people of many German states had tried to gain a proper share in their 
government l\v revolution in 1848, but were put down by force and trickery. The 



THE GREAT WAR 381 

emperor and nobles were able to rule as they pleased, in 
spite of apparently liberal constitutions, because the people 
were divided among many discordant races. One cause of 
the Great War was the age-long struggle between autocracy 
and democracy. Growing numbers of people in Germany 
and Austria-Hungary were demanding freedom or a larger 
share in the government ; and the i-uling class believed that 
their control would be made more secure by a successful 
war. 

German Ambitions. — William II, who became king of 
Pi-ussia and German Emperor in 1888, was strongly opposed 
to democracy. Like the kings of the Middle Ages, he 
believed that he held his power by " divine right," and 
thus was entitled to rule without the consent of the gov- 
erned. Moreover, he and the Pmssian nobles were ambi- 
tious to extend their empire. The German people were 
taught that they owed strict obedience to their rulers ; 
that they were a chosen people, with institutions superior to 
those of other nations ; and that they had a great mission 
to extend their influence over the world. Nearly all the 
able-bodied Germans were trained as soldiers, and their 
standing army was the strongest the world had ever seen. 
Under William II, a powerful navy was built. Said he 

king of Prussia, the strongest of the German states, increased his territory and his 
power by successful wars against Denmark, Austria, and France ; and in 1871 be- 
came German Emperor. The newly created German Empire was made up of 
twenty-six states, — kingdoms, grand duchies, duchies, etc. — but Prussia was 
much larger than all the rest combined, and its king was always to be the Emperor. 
The chief lawmaking body of the empire was a council of men appointed by the 
rulers of the states. A lower house was elected by the people, but had little power. 
The German Emperor had control of the government officials, the sole power to 
make treaties, and unrestricted command of the army. The chief supporters of 
his rule were the Prussian nobles or Junkers (j'oong'kerz), who filled most of the 
high oflSces in the army and in the governments of Prussia and of the empire. 
Public opinion was largely shaped by a strict censorship of the press, by control of 
schools and universities, and by an extensive system of honors and titles given to 
friends of the government. 



382 



WILSON'S ADMINISTRATION 



[1914 



ill a public speech, " Our future lies on the watei"." 
German industries and foreign commerce were pushed Ij}' 
goveiTiment aid. German colonies were accjuired in Africa, 
the islands of the southern Pacific, and the coast of China.^ 
German financiers secured concessions for building railroads 
in Turkey. German leaders looked fonvard to the con- 
quest of the British Empire, and drank toasts to " The 
Day " {Der Tag) when the war should begin. As a first 




LONG-RANGE GEKMAN GUNS. 



stc]) in world i)ower, they planned to control a gicat empire 
of '' Mid-Europe," including Germany, Austria-Hungaiy, 
th(» Balkan states, and adjacent provinces. 

The War in 1914-1916. — The immediate cause of the 
Great War was the determination of Austria and Germany 

' On several occasions Germany's colonial policy came near to cavi.sinp; war with 
the United States, as well as with other nations. In the Sanioan Islands the hifrh- 
handed acts of German officers led to a show of force in ISS!). American and 
CJerman warships wore ready for battle (here when a hurricane destroyed them; 
— and an aKreement was then made to end the dispute. A^ain during our war with 
Spain in 1S9S, when .Vdmiral Dewey was hlockadiuK Manila, a (iernian fleet showed 
a disposition to interfere witli his operations. Dewey protested, and finally sent 
word to the German admiral that he could have a fight if he wanted it ; where- 
upon the Germans desisted. 



THE GREAT WAR 383 

to gain control over Serbia, one of the Balkan states.^ 
The Serbs are a Slavic people, akin to the Russians. 
Russia made ready to intervene m support of Serbian inde- 
pendence. Thereupon Germany declared war on Russia, 
August 1, 1914, and also on France, which was allied with 
Russia for defensive puiposes. To invade France across 
an unfortified frontier, German armies forced their way 
through neutral Belgium. This brought Great Britain 
at once into the war in defense of Belgium and of her own 
interests. 

Germany was better prepared for war than her enemies, 
and had counted on an easy victoiy. But for two and a 
half years the struggle dragged on wdthout a decision. Ger- 
many and Austria — the Central Powers — were joined by 
Turkey and Bulgaria. With the opposing Allies were en- 
listed Japan, Italy, and many smaller nations. Battle 
after Imttle wasfought ; in opposing trench systems hundreds 
of miles long there was incessant fighting ; millions of men 
were killed, wounded, or made prisoners of war. But 
neither side was vanquished, neither side was ready to yield. ^ 

■ Two former Turkish provinces inhabited chiefly by Serbs had already been 
annexed by Austria-Hungary, in spite of the protests of Serbia, which had hoped 
to annex them. Furthermore, Serl^ia had displeased Austria by gaining a large 
share of the territory wrested from Turkey in the Balkan War of 1912-1913. Aus- 
tria proposed to make war on Serbia in 1913, but dropped the plan when Italy 
(then her ally) oppo.sed it. In June, 1914, the heir to the Austrian throne was 
murdered by an Austrian subject who was of the Serb race. Austria held Serbia 
responsible for the crime. Being assured of German support, she forced a war with 
Serbia by making demands which no independent nation could grant. In this 
crisis Great Britain, France, Italy, and Russia urged a peaceful settlement, but 
Germany insisted that Austria should be pernaitted to deal with Serbia as she pleased. 

2 The first German invasion of France was turned back at the battle of the 
Marne, a great victory of the French (with a few British) under General Joffre 
(zhofr). Russian invasions of East Prussia were ended by crushing victories of 
the Germans under General Hindenburg, at Tannenberg and the Mazurian Lakes. 
The Russians, however, overran much Austrian territory, but in 1915 they were 
defeated and driven back in many terrible battles. In 1916 came the battle of 
Verdim — where the German crown prince lost 600,000 men in a stubborn but 
futile attempt to crush the French — and the equally bloody battle of the Somme, 
where the British and French for many weeks slowly pushed the Germans back. 



384 



WILSON'S ADMINISTRATION 



[1916 



At. llic 011(1 of lOH) tlic (Viitral Powors held most of Bol- 
giuin, a strip (;f iiorihoni Franco, the greater part of the 
Balkan States, Poland, and a part of western Russia. The 
Allies had taken the German colonies and small paiis of 
Turkey and Austria.^ The British fleet had driven German 
ships to cover and had cut off most of Germany's oversea 
trade. 




AEUUPLANK!- 



IN FRANCE : THE LAUGE ONE IS FOK BOMBING, THE SMALL ONE FOR 
FIGHTING. 



New Methods of Warfare. — The Great War was more 
terrible, more destmctive to life and to property, than any 
previous war. This was not only because of the greater 
iiuml)er of soldiers in action, ])ut also because of new means 
of slaughter. Improved cannon and machine guns were 
used in prodigious numbers. Armored automobiles were 
introduced, and for moving over rough ground the British 
developed the " tank," heavily armored, propelled and 

' Tlie French also had possession of a small corner of Alsace-Lorraine, the prov- 
ince which Germany had taken from France in 1S71. 



THE GREAT WAR 



385 



steered by l)olt-like caterpilla,!- treads, and armed wiili nia- 
chino *i;uiis aiu] small cannon. Still more striking were the 
airships, of various kinds and used for various puiposes — 
fighting, bombing, scouting, directing artilleiy fire. Ger- 
many l)uilt many huge dirigible balloons called Zeppelins, 
but they were easily defeated in battle by the speedy aero- 
planes. 

These means of warfare were terrible enough when used 
in conformity with international law. But the Geraian 
government did not confine itself to lawful 
warfare. German Zeppelins and aeroplanes 
bombarded unfortified residential cities and 
villages far away from the zone of military 
operations, killing and maiming hundreds of 
women and children, but few men of military 
age. This was in flat violation of the Hague 
conventions, a code of international law 
which all the warring nations had recently 
pledged themselves to observe. German 
scientists also added enormously to the hor- 
rors of warfare by introducing the unlawful 
use of torturing poison gas and flame pro- 
jectors. Poison gas proved so effective a mask. 
weapon that the Allies were compelled to adopt it in self- 
defense.^ 

In other ways also the German government flouted the 
Hague conventions and other i-ules of international law, as 
well as the usages of civilization and humanity, on the plea 
of '^ military necessity" ; in other words, on the theoiy that 

1 Many ingeniously deadly gases were used. At first the gas was emitted from 
small tanks in the front trenches, when a light wind would carry it in a cloud against 
the enemy. Later it was projected in shells timed to explode at the desired distance. 
Soldiers quickly learned to protect themselves from the deadly fumes by means 
of gas masks and respirators, which were added to their necessary equipment. 




AMERICAN SOLDIER 
WEARING GAS 



386 



WILSON'S ADMINISTRATION 



[1910 



llie end justifies the means, that might makes right. At the 
outset Germany viojatetl a treaty guaranteeing the neutral- 
ity of Belgium. She terrorized and exploited the people of 
occupied territories by frightfully severe measures of re- 
pression, robbery, and forced labor ; in plundered Poland a 
large part of the people were wiped out by famine.^ Un- 
able to maintain a lawful blockade, German subriiarines 
attempted to cut off the trade of the Allies by sinking 
merchant ships — in many cases without giving passengers 




-Anchor 
^CompreacdAirlanhi. i. Pumps for Fuel, Air Submarine ^Torpedo, 
and bdtincini bnki. /lines. 

DIAGRAM OF A SMALL SUBMARINE. 

and crew a chance to save their lives. Many hundreds of 
ships wTre sunk, but the Allies managed to hold the sub- 
marines in check by means of nets, aeroplanes, and swift 
patrol boats armed with quick-firing cannon and later with 
depth bombs.^ 

American Neutrality. — Most of the people of the United 
States ho})ed for the success of the Allies, for man}^ reasons : 
(1) Although both sides claimed to be fighting a defensive 
war, the evidence was soon overwhelming that the Central 

1 Earlier in the war, about a million peaceable Christians of Armenia and Syria 
were exterminated by order of their Turkish rulers, although a word from Berlin 
would have sufficed to prevent the tragedy. 

' A depth bomi) is about a.s large as a barrel and is provided with mechanism 
that causea it to explode when it has sunk to a certain depth. If dropped any- 
where near a sul)merged sul)marine, its powerful explosion is likely to cause fatal 
injury, because the pressure is transmitted a long distance through the water. 



THE GREAT WAR 387 

Powers were the aggressors. (2) For many years Germany 
had been preparing for war, and at the Hague Peace Con- 
ferences and elsewhere her influence had been thrown 
against projects for reducing armaments and for promoting 
arbitration as the means of settling international disputes. 
Our own countiy had recently concluded special arbitra- 
tion treaties with Great Britain, France, and many other 
nations, but Germany had declined to make such a treaty 
with us. (3) German plans of expansion included the con- 
trol of large parts of South America, and German writers 
and statesmen openly denounced the Monroe doctrine. (4) 
To citizens of the United States, as well as of other coun- 
tries, who were of German descent, Germany offered the 
right of German citizenship. As such persons were per- 
mitted to remain at the same time citizens of their adopted 
country, this offer was really the assertion of a superior 
claim to their allegiance. (5) Germany's disregard of trea- 
ties and international law, together with her barbarous 
methods of warfare, meant a disastrous set-back to civiliza- 
tion if she should be victorious. (6) A victoiy of Germany's 
militaiy ideals and her autocratic rule would mean far more 
than the government of a few additional provinces without 
the consent of the governed. It would l^e a deadly menace 
to our own future peace and welfare ; ^ for in the future it 
would be necessaiy either to submit to German domina- 
tion, or else to keep up a burdensome armament for the 
defense of our rights. 

Nevertheless, so great was America's love of peace that 
we clung as long as possible to the position of strict neu- 

' James W. Gerard, American ambassador to Germany, had an interview with 
the German Emperf)r October 22, 1915, and reported that tlip Emperor then said, 
" America had better look out after this war," and " I shall stand uo nonsense from 
America after the war." 



388 WILSON'S ADMINISTRATION [1916 

trality. For a time we hoped to be able to play the part of 
mediator in helping to end the struggle on fair terms. In 
December, 1916, President Wilson asked all the warring 
nations to state the aims for which they were fighting, with 
a view to finding terms on which the fearful contest might 
be ended. He also urged the formation of a league of na- 
tions to prevent future wars. The allies stated their aims 
and approved of the proposed league. German}- declined 
to do so, but proposed instead a conference at which terms 
of peace could be discussed in secret. Her proposition was 
declined by the Allies, on the ground that it was designed 
merely to embarrass them without giving any promise or 
hope of fair terms. 

As a neutral, the United States insisted on the right of 
its citizens to trade freely with all countries, subject to the 
rules of international law in regard to contraband and 
blockades. In cutting off trade with Germany the British 
searched neutral ships and controlled their hiovements in 
ways to which we ol)jected as arl^itraiy and unlawful. Our 
protests had little effect, but as the dispute concerned only 
the property, and not the lives, of our citizens, it could await 
arbitration and full satisfaction in calmer times. 

German interference with our rights, on the other hand, 
was more serious l)ecause it cost the lives of many Ameri- 
cans. When a German submarine unlawfully sank the 
British liner Lusitania without warning in May, 1915, 
more than a thousand of the passengers and crew were 
drowned, including 114 American men, women, and chil- 
dren. President Wilson made repeated protests, but other 
passenger ships were sunk without warning, and our gov- 
ernment at last threatened to break off diplomatic relations 
if Germanv did not abandon her unlawful mothods of sub- 



THE GREAT WAR 389 

marine wai'fare. To avert the break, (lerinany then made 
a conditional promise not to sink such ships — unless they 
should resist capture — without giving passengers and crew 
a chance to escape in their lifeboats. 

How America Was Forced into the War. — At the end of 
Januaiy, 1917, Germany withdrew her promise and an- 
nounced that she would begin at once an unrestricted sub- 
marine warfare against all ships, either belligerent or neutral, 
within a certain zone around the coasts of Great Britain 
and France. President Wilson thereupon broke off dip- 
lomatic relations with Germany, but expressed the hope 
that she would not actually cany out her threat. 

But l:)y April Ciermau}^ had sunk several of our ships, and 
had added to the toll of American lives lost in other unlawful 
sinkings. Clearh^ the warfare thus made upon us by Ger- 
many could be avoided in only one wa}^ — by abandoning our 
rights on the ocean. There were also several other causes 
of war. For many months German spies in this country, 
under the direction of the German embass}^, had been stir- 
ring up strikes, dynamiting munition factories, and plotting 
to blow up ships leaving our ports. Other German agents 
were agitating against us in several Spanish American 
countries, and in Januaiy, 1917, the German foreign minis- 
ter. Dr. Zimmermann, offered an alliance and financial sup- 
port to Mexico for a war in which the Mexicans should re- 
conquer New Mexico, Texas, and Arizona. 

On April 2, 1917, President Wilson asked Congress to 
declare the existence of a state of war with Germany, and 
Congress passed the required resolution by a very large 
majority April 6.-^ 

' " Read How the War Came to America," a pamphlet published by Com- 
mittee on Public Information, 10 Jackson Place, Washington, D. C. This 
contain? President Wilson's address of April 2, in which he said : " The present 



390 WILSON'S ADMINISTRATION [1917 

One I'oason for the large iiiajorily was a rovolution that 
had recently taken place in Russia. The Russian govern- 
ment had been even more autocratic and oj3j)ressive than 
the German, and many Americans were afraid that Russian 
autocracy would be strengthened by an}' success of the Allies. 
But in March, 1917, the Russian Czar was deposed, and 
Russia took the first steps toward establishing a government 
by the people. Thus the Great War was rapidly coming to 
be a clear-cut stiiiggle between autocracy and democracy, 
between tj-ranii}' and freedom. 

The United States went into the war to secure a just and 
stable peace, and not to gain any special advantage for itself. 
It made no treaty of alliance with the Allies, but it worked 
in close harmony and cooperation with them. It lent 
money and sent supplies and men where they were most 
needed to win the victoiy. War with Austria-Hungaiy was 
declared in December, 1917. Brazil, Cuba, and several 
other countries followed the lead of the United States in 
declaring war on Germany. The plans of the Allies were 
greatty influenced l)y our counsel, and especially the Ameri- 
can principle of government b}' the consent of the governed, 
with the aim of a\'()i(liiig future wars. 

Preparations for War. — Congress was suddenly called on 
to pass many laws for putting the countiy on a war l)asis. 
The work to be done under the President's direction was 
enormously increased. One e\ddence of the new activities 
was the hurried erection, in Washington, of many temporaiy 
buildings to be used merely for office rooms. 

German submarine warfare against oommeroe is a warfare against mankind. 

. . . Each nation must decide for itself how it will meet it There is one 

choice we cannot make, we are incapable of making : wo will not choose the path 
of submission and suffer the most sacred rights of our nation and our people to be 
ignored or violated. The wrongs against which wc now array ourselves are no 
common wrongs ; they cut to the very roots of human life." 



THE GREAT WAR 391 

Under existing laws several hundred thousand new men 
enlisted in the national guard and in the regular army. 
But for the creation of an army numbering millions, Congress 
passed several draft acts or conscription laws. On June 5, 

1917, all men between 21 and 31 years of age were required 
to register. Nearly 10,000,000 did so. Local draft boards 
examined these men, and from time to time those fit for 
service, selected partly by classes and partly by lot, were 
called to the colors and sent to camps to be trained. In 

1918, Congress provided for the registration of all men be- 
tween 18 and 46 j^ears old. 

Tremendous appropriations were made for carrying on 
the war, not only for pay and maintenance of soldiiers, l^ut 
also for building camps and arsenals, making munitions, 
guns, 'Hanks," and aeroplanes, and building shipyards 
and ships. Over a billion dollars were devoted to the 
making of aeroplanes alone. 

The cost had to be met by taxes and loans. Within a 
period of less than eighteen months, the people loaned the 
government about $17,000,000,000 by the purchase of 
Liberty bonds. A large sum was raised l)y the sale of War 
Savings Stamps, and immense sums were collected in taxes 
on incomes, on excess war profits, and on inheritances, be- 
sides many other taxes. ^ 

Shipbuilding. — The continued destruction of many mer- 
chant ships by German submarines had reduced consider- 
ably the shipping under the British, French, Norwegian, 

1 Besides paying heavy taxes and lending money to the government, the people 
gave many millions of dollars to the Red Cross, the Young Men's Christian Associ- 
ation, the Knights of Columbus, and other organizations for helping the men in 
service. Near the end of 1918, a united war work drive resulted in securing gifts 
of about .'S200,000, 000 for the use of seven such organizations — Protestant, Catholic, 
Hebrew, and non-sectarian. Every community had its local branch of the Red 
Cross, where women gathered to make garments and bandages for the wounded, or 
to maintain a canteen service for men in uniform. 



392 



WILSONS A D M I xN I S T RATION 



[1917 



Dutch, and other flags, both AlHed and neutral. As a 
result, the selling price of a ship in 1917 was many times 
what it had been three j^ears before. The shortage of 
ships made it necessary for our government to go into the 
V)usiness of shipl)uilding on a great scale so that troops and 
supplies could be loished to the Allies. An Emergency 
Fleet Corporation, organized and financed by the govern- 
ment, contracted for the building of hundreds of new vessels. 
At Philadelphia the Hog Island shipyard was constructed, 




BUILDINii \V()()l)i;\ SKII'S l.\ A (iOV IOUaVMK.V I" SHIl-YAUL). 

larger than any other in existence. At many othei* ])laces 
also new shipyards were built and existing shipyards were 
taken over by the government so that this countiy was 
soon the greatest shipbuilding nation of the woi-ld. Many 
of the new vessels were made of wood, a few of concrete, 
l)ut the largest were of steel. New records were made in 
the speed with which vessels were Iniilt. The tankshij) 
Tucknhoe was built and launched in twenty-seven days, 
and the destroyer Ward in eight(>en days. Meanwhile the 
government had repaired and ])ut into commission a large 



THE GREAT WAR 393 

fleet of German ships which had been sheltered in our ports 
but were extensively damaged by their crews under orders 
from Germany in January, 1917. By the middle of 1918 we 
were building ships faster than Germany was sinking them, 
so that the world's shipping had begun to grow larger again. 

Food and Fuel Regulations, etc. — In 1915 and 1916 our 
exports of foodstuffs and other commodities to the warring 
countries of Europe had greatly increased, but still the 
Allies were on short rations. In order that they might have 
more and that our troops might have plenty, steps were 
taken to increase the supply and cut down home consump- 
tion. Farmers were asked to plant more grain, and women 
to* can more fruit and vegetables. Home gardens were 
planted eveiy where. City men and women volunteered to 
work on farms. Congress gave the President power to con- 
trol the prices of wheat, coal, metals, and many other things. 
A Food Administrator appointed by him, Herbert Hoover, 
made many rules ; for example, limiting the amount of flour 
and sugar that could be sold at one time.^ Meatless days 
were decreed, and voluntarily accepted by the people. A 
similar rationing system was put in force by a Fuel Admin- 
istrator so that there might be plenty of coal for ships and 
for factories engaged in war work.- 

Under authority given by Congress the President con- 
trolled the imports and exports of the country. In 1918 
he took over the control and operation of railroads, tele- 

• As war measures, also. Congress authorized the President to forbid the use of 
grain in making liquor, and prohibited the Uquor traffic from July 1, 1919, till after 
the demobilization of the American troops. It also proposed a prohibition amend- 
ment to the Constitution. This eighteenth amendment was duly ratified by the 
necessary number of states in January, 1919, to go into effect one year later. 

2 The " Daylight Saving" law was passed early in 1918 in order to save coal 
and gas by bringing more of our activities into the daylight hours and thus re- 
ducing the need of artificial light, lender this law our clocks and watches are 
set one hour in advance from the last Sunday in March till the last Sunday in 
October. 



394 WILSON'S ADMINISTRATION [I'jls 

graphs, and telephones for the period of the war, thus making 
it possible to effect economies in their management and to 
prevent interruptions of war work. 

Some of the state governments also passed acts to stimu- 
late food production and to require all men under fift}' 
years of age, rich and poor alike, to engage in useful work. 

Popular Support of the War. — All these laws and regula- 
tions brought loss and troul^le to many people. Because of 
the goveriunent's large demand for things, the prices of 
food, clothing, and other articles rose veiy high, and would 
have risen much higher but for government control. The 
demand for labor was so great that wages also rose ; but 
multitudes of men and women workers had to leave their 
homes and move to uncomfortable cjuarters near their work. 
Taxes were Ijurdensome. In canying on the vast ])ushiess 
of war making, there were various mistakes and delays, 
causing hardships to many persons. Al:)ove all, several 
million men were drafted for service as soldiers. 

Here were abundant causes for discontent, for partisan and 
factional strife, for popular opposition to the war ; but no. 
With marvelous accord the Americans, native and natural- 
ized, rich and poor, men, women, and children, joined in 
hearty support of America's cause. Onh' a few persons of 
German descent, a few haters of England, part of the So- 
cialist party, and a few pacifists and extreme radicals were 
in open opposition. 

From 1914 on, the German government spent millions 
of dollars in trjdng to influence public opinion here in favor 
of Germany, or at least in favor of neutrality. Newspapers, 
lecturers, and writers wct'c l)ought or hired, ])ro-German and 
pacifist associations were organized, congressmen were 
(k^luged with telegrams, all in an elaborate plot to mislead 



THE GREAT WAR 395 

the peoi)le. This campaign had Httle effect. After we entered 
the war, however, an espionage act was passed to punish 
the giving of aid to Germany either by spying or by speak- 
ing or writing in her favor or against the American cause. 

Many German citizens were residents of our country. 
Those who were active in support of Germany, if not con- 
victed and imprisoned for crime, were interned for the 
period of the war. The others were merely required to 
register and to keep away from munitions plants, wharves, 
etc. An Alien Property Custodian took possession of large 
factories and other properties owned by alien enemies, and 
held them, or the proceeds of their sale, until the end of 
the war. 

The War on the Sea. — Before announcing the renewal of 
unrestricted submarining, Germany had built many new 
submarines. Said Dr. Zimmermann in his offer to Mexico 
(page 3S9), " The employment of ruthless submarine warfare 
now promises to compel England to make peace in a few 
months." But this promise was not to be fulfilled. For a 
few months there was an increase in the number of ships 
sunk, but then the Allied destroyers regained the upper 
hand. In the work of combating submarines our navy 
promptly took part. A fleet of our destroyers and other 
war ships, under Admiral Sims, was constantly busy in pa- 
trol duty and in convoying transports.^ Not only were the 

1 There were surprisingly few disasters in our naval warfare. Among the more 
noted was the sinking of the destroyer Jacob Jones, which was torpedoed with the 
loss of 69 lives. The British liner Tufscania with more than two thousand American 
troops on board was sunk by a submarine off the north coast of Ireland, but only 
about two hundred were lost. On a return trip to our country the President Lin- 
coln, one of the German liners seized by our government, was torpedoed and sunk 
with small loss of life. During the war, the American naval losses from all causes 
numbered about fifty, mostly small vessels, with the sacrifice of over 1000 lives. 
In addition, during 1914-191.5, about 1.50 American merchant vessels were sunk by 
acts of the enemy, and aijout SOO lives sacrificed. The losses of Great Britain 
were of course far larger than ours. 



H9») WILSON'S ADMINISTRATION [1918 

Allies ])i-()vid(Ml willi m11 tlio supplies they required, but 
month after month our troops were successfully transported 
to France, in British and American ships, to the number of 
more than 2,0()(),()00 by the end of October, 1918. 

Unal)le to throttle England or to stop the American troop- 
ships, a few of the German sul^marines turned their atten- 
tion to our Atlantic coast, beginning in May, lOLS. They 
avoided our convoys and armed ships, but sank many de- 
fenseless sailing vessels and a few unarmed steamers. 

The War on Land. — The Russian revolution of March, 
1917, left the govei-nment at first in the hands of men who 
wished to make Russia a democratic republic. The}- were 
friendly to the Allies, and wished to continue the war against 
Germany as the airh-enemy of democracy. But their 
plans w ere upset by extreme Socialists called Bolsheviki 
(bol-shev-e-kee'), who insisted on a government by workmen 
only, an " immediate democratic peace " to l)e negotiated 
by workmen, a division of the land, and all kinds of social- 
istic reforms. They undermined the discipline of the army, 
and by a new revolution seized the Russian go^Trnment in 
November, 1917. They repudiated the debts and obliga- 
tions of Russia and invited the workmen of other countries 
also to seize their governments, — but in vain. Finally they 
signed the treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany, by which 
they agreed to pay a large indemnity and to give up all 
claim to immense provinces in the west and south. At 
once the countiy fell a prey to German extortion, famine, 
anarchy, and civil war. In August, 1918, American and 
Allied troops were landed in Siberia and in northern Russia, 
to guard the distribution of supplies and to cooperate with 
the people in resisting the Germans. 

The collapse of Russia enabled the Central Powers to 



THE GREAT WAR 397 

transfer many troops from the east to the west. In the fall 
of 1917 they drove the Itahans back to the Piave (pyah'vay) 
River in northeastern Italy, capturing many guns and 
prisoners. In France also in the first half of 1918 they 
made large gains against the British and the French. But 
American troops arriving and training in France, under the 
command of General Pershing, at length restored the bal- 
ance in numbers. Also, partly through American influence. 




AMERICAN TROOPS REVIEWED BY GENERAL PERSHING IN FRANCE. 

all the Allied armies in France and Italy were placed under 
a single supreme commander, the French General Foch 
(fosh). To complete the training of the American troops 
most quickly, many of them fought at first in scattered 
regiments and divisions beside veteran Allies under British 
and French officers. 

Short lengths of the trench lines, at several places between 
Rheims and the Swiss border, were intrusted to the Ameri- 
cans as early as March, 1918. By a sudden attack the Ger- 
mans took Seicheprey (sSsh-pray) in April, but the Americans 
and French promptly rallied and drove out the intruders. 



398 



WILSON'S ADMINISTRATION 



[191S 



Farther west, in May, an American force took Cantigny 
(cahn-tecn-yee), and held it against strong counter attacks. 
American marines and soldiers at Chateau-Thierry (sha-tO- 
tyer-ree) stopped the advance of the Germans nearest to 
Paris in June and Juh', and many Americans helped in the 



h 

Lonxloii 




I Battle Line Jan. 1,1918 
I Battle Line July. 18,1918 
Greatest German Advance 



THJi BATTLE FKONT IN FKANCK AT THK END U1-' THE LAST UEK.MAN DKIVE. 

counter strokes by which General Foch drove the Germans 
nearly out of France. 

Meanwhile large American armies were formed to take 
over the conduct of operations on a long stretch of the 
front. On September 12-13 General Pershing took the 
St. Mihiel salient, with many prisoners and guns. Then in 
brilliant and stubborn fighting the Americans pressed 
through the Argonne, reached Sedan (Nov. 7), and thus cut 
one of the main German lines of retreat. 



THE GREAT WAR 399 

Surrender of Germany. — ^ Allied arms, nieanwhilo, had 
been brilliantly successful in many fields. Bulgaria was 
forced to yield in September, Turkey in October,, and Aus- 
tria-Hungary early in Noveml^er, in the midst of a terrific 
defeat at the hands of the Italians. The German govern- 
ment begged for a truce and agreed to accept a peace based 
on principles that had been laid down by President Wilson. 
The German army, now on the verge of disaster, quickly 
accepted from General Foch the terms of an armistice which 
amounted to virtual surrender November 14, and hostilities 
ended at 11 a.m. on that day. 

Germany handed over thousands of guns of all kinds, 
many aeroplanes, locomotives, and railroad cars, and much 
other property. She surrendered all her submarines, and 
most of her other war ships. She gave up Allied pris- 
oners of war. She stopped destroying Allied property and 
withdrew her troops from occupied territoiy — ^ Belgium, 
Alsace-Lorraine, Poland, Roumania, Austria-Hungar}^ She 
renounced the treaty of Brest-Litovsk. Pending the conclu- 
sion of a treaty of peace she consented to the occupation of 
the v/est bank of the Rhine by Allied troops, together with 
important places on the east bank. It was agreed, more- 
over, that Germany should make reparation for damage 
done. 

By December the British, Belgian, French, and American 
armi.es were in possession of the large part of Germany west 
of the Rhine ; President Wilson was conferring with the 
heads of the Allied governments ; and it was understood that 
the formal peace conferences would begin in January.^ 

' Meanwhile, ever since November, Austria-Hungary and Germany had been 
in the throes of revolution. Both emperors abdicated, as did the monarchs of the 
various German .states. In many places the Socialists came into power, and in 
Berlin, early in .January, there was much fighting between different factions. 



4.00 WILSOXS A DM I X I ST RATIO X [1»18 

Cost of the War. — As tho United States did Jiol onlor llie 
war till scV'Cial ^cars atHer it began, tlie American losses in 
killed and wounded were far smaller than those of the Allies. 
Oui- casualties totaled al)out 60,000 dead and 200,000 
wounded, as compared with several millions each for France, 
Great Britain, and Russia. In the outlay of money, how- 
ever, the difference was not so great. The money cost of 
the war will prol)ably exceed $30,000,000,000 for the United 
States, as compared with perhaps twice as much for (li-eat 
Britain or France. 

It is the hope" of suffering hunianit)' that this war, ^\•ith 
its stupendous cost and staggering losses, may be the last 
war hi the histoiy of the civilized world. 



APPENDIX 



CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY 



1492. 

1497. 

1497-98. 

149K. 

1501. 
1511. 



1519-21. 
1520-22. 



1524. 

1532-36. 

1585. 

1539-42. 

1540-42. 

15C2-64. 

1.565. 

1571. 

1578-80. 

1582. 

1584-87. 

1605. 

i6or. 

1608. 
1609. 



1613. 
1614. 
1619. 



Columbus discovered the New World, October 13 . 

First voyage of Vespucius (iiucler Piuzon aud Soils), to Gulf of Mexico 

The Cabots explored tlie eastern c-oast of North America ... 

South America was discovered by Columbus, August 10 . . . 

Vasco da Gama sailed rouud the f'ape of (iood Hope to India . 

Vespucius explored the eastern coast of South America ... 

San Juan, In Porto Rleo, founded by Ponce do Leon ; oldest city ii 
United States territory 

Ponce de Leon reached Florida, Mai'ch 27 

Balboa saw the Pacific Ocean, September 25 

Cortes conquered Mexico 

Magellan sailed tlivough the Strait of Magellan aud the Pacific Ocean 
and discovered the Philippines. One of his vessels, returning home by 
the Cape of Good Hope, made the tirst clrcumnavigntion of the globe 

Verrazano explored the coast of North America .... 

Pizarro conquered Peru 

Cartier explored the St. Lawrence River 

De Soto in the South (found the Mississippi Liver, 1541) 

Coronado explored the Southwest 

Huguenots tried to plant a colony in the Southeast 

St. Augustine founded; oldest town in njain jiart of United States 

Manila founded in the Philippines 

Drake sailed to the Pacific coast, and circumnavigated the globe 

Espejo explored and named New Mexico 

Raleigh twice attempted to plant a colony in Virginia 

De Monts established a colony at Port Royal, Nova Scotia 



PAGK 

24 

2(; 

2K 
26 



34 
31 
32 
35 
32 
29 
41 
33 
43 
36 



Jamestown founded by the T^ondon Company; first permanent Eng- 
lish settlement, in America, May 13 

Champlaiu planted, at Quebec, tirst permanent French colony 

Virginia enlarged by its second charter 

Champlaln discovered Lake Champlain, and fought the Iroquois 

Hudson explored the Hudson River 

Settlement of New Netherland (New York) by the Dutch . 

Smith explored the New England coast 

First Colonial Assembly, in Virginia, July 30 

Negro slavery introduced in Virginia 55 

Pilgrims founded Plymouth ; first permanent English settlement in 
New England (first landing there occurred December 21) ... 60 

Indian massacre in Virginia, March 22 55 

i 



44, 49 
36 
52 
37 
46 
71 
57 

■ 53 



11 

IC'iJ. 

lC-2i. 

UVi'J. 

1630. 

1632. 

1633-a6. 

1634. 

1635. 

1636. 

1637. 

1638. 

1641. 

1644. 



1653. 
1655. 

1660. 
1662. 
1664. 

1670. 

1673. 

1675-76. 

1676. 

1677. 

1679. 

1682. 



1683. 

1684. 

1686. 

1689. 

1689-97. 

1690. 

1692. 

1702-13. 

1710. 

1729. 

1732. 

1733. 

1738. 

1744-48. 

I74r.. 

1749. 
1750. 
1754. 



CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY 

New Hampshire settled at Dover aud Poit.-<inouth .... tage 66 

Vir{?iuia became a royal jn-nviiu'e 56 

CUarter f^raiiti'd t(» Massachusetts Bay colouy, March 4 .... 62 

First house l)uilt iu liostdii, under Governor Wiiitliroi), .Inly ... 62 

Maryland firaiited to Lord Baltiiuore, June 20 79 

Conueeticut setth-d at Windsor, Hartford, and Wetherstleld . 67, 69 

Maryland .settU?d at St. Marys, March 27 79 

Claybonie's rebellion in Virj^iuia and Maryland 79 

Rhode Island settled at Providence, Juni- 63, 70 

Pequot War 68 

New Haven colony founded 69 

Delaware settled near Wilmington by the Swedes, April .... 76 

New Hampalllre united to Massachusetts C7 

Charter frrauted to Rliode Island ; Providence and Rhode Island Plan- 
tations united, March 14 71 

Second Indian massacre in Virginia, April is 56 

North Carolina settled, on Albemarle Sound 81 

Civil war in Maryland 80 

New Sweden conquered by the Dutch, Octob<'r 72 

Navigation Act, passed in 1651, now enforced ,'".6 

Charter granted to Connecticut, April 20 69 

New Netherland conquered by the English and called New York . . 73 

New Jersey settled at Elizabethtown 75 

South Carolina settled, on the Ashley River 81 

Marquette^ and Joliet explored the Mississii)pi . .... 38 

King Philii)'s War 64 

Bacon's rebellion in Virginia r,7 

Maine bought by Massachusetts Bay colony 67 

New Hampshire made a royal province 67 

La Salle explored the Mississippi .39 

Pennsylvania settled 76 

Delaware gjanted to William PeTin by the Duke of York, August 31 . 76 

Philadelphia founded by William Penii 77 

Massachusetts Bay colony a royal province 65 

Andros arrived in Boston as governor of New England, December 20 . 63 

Andros deposed. April 18 65 

King William's War 86 

Schenectady burned by the Indians and the French, February 9 . . 86 

Salem witchcraft 65 

Queen Anne's War 87 

Port Royal, N. 8., capturcil by the British and named Annapolis . 88 

North and South Carolina distinct royal provinces 84 

Washington born, February 22 84 

Georgia settled by Oglethorpe at Savannah. February 12 . . . . 85 

New .Jersey a distinct royal province 75 

King George's War 88 

Lonisburgcaptuied by the British. .Tune 17 89 

France took formal possession of the Ohio v.alley 89 

(>reat Britain granted lands in the Ohio valle.\- to the Ohio Company 89 

Battle at Great Meadows ; Fort Necessity captured by the French, July 4 93 



CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY 



The French driven from Acadia. June to December 
Braddock defeated in the battle of Monon^ahela, July 9 
The British defeated Dieskau at Lake George, September 8 
French under Montcalm captured Fort Oswego, August 14 . 
Fort William Henry surrendered to Montcalm, August 9 
Abercrombie repulsed at Fort Ticouderoga, July 8 . 
Louisburg taken by Amherst and Wolfe, July 27 . . . 
Fort Frontenac captured by the colonists, August 27 
Fort Duquesne taken by the British, November 25 . 
Ticouderoga and Crown Point abandoned by the French 
Niagara surrendered to the British, July 25 .... 
Battle of Plains of Abraham, September 13; Quebec surrendered 
Monti-eal surrendered to the British, September 8 . 
Havana and Manila captured by the Bi'iti.sh .... 

Peace of Paris, February 10 

Pontiac's War 



I'AGE 95 
94 
96 
07 
96 
96 
96 
97 
95 
97 
97 
98, 99 
90 
99 
99 
100 



1779. 



The Stamp Act passed, March 8 120 

The Stamp Act repealed by Parliament, March 18 122 

A tax imposed on tea, glass, paper (Townshend Act), June 29 . . . 122 

Boston Massacre, March 5 123 

The tea thrown overboard in Boston harbor, December 10 . . . . 123 

"Boston Port Bill" passed, March 31 123 

First Continental Congress met at Philadelphia, September 5 . . .124 

Battles of Lexington and Concord. April 19 124 

Allen and Arnold took Ticouderoga, May 10, and Crown Point, May 12 127, 128 

Washington elected commander in chief, June 15 128 

Battle of Bunker Hill. June 17 127 

Battle of Quebec; Montgomery killed, December 31 129 

Boston evacuated by the Britisli troops, March 17 130 

Attack on Fort Moultrie, June 28 130 

Declaration of Independence, July 4 " . . . . 131 

Battle of Long Island, August 27 133 

Fort Washington taken, November 16 134 

Battle of Trenton, December 26 135 

Battle of Princeton, January 3 136 

Battle of Oriskany, August 6 139 

Battle of Bennington, August 16 140 

Battle of Braudywine, September 11 137 

First battle of Saratoga, September 19 IW 

Philadelphia captured by the British, September 26 137 

Battle of Germantown, October 4 137 

Second battle of Saratoga, Octol>er 7 1*1 

Surrender of Burgo.yne, October 17 142 

American independence acknowledged by France, February 6 . . .144 

Battle of Monmouth, June 28 144 

Massacre of W^yoming, Julys 146 

British captured Savannah, Ga., December 29 147 

Vincennes captured by George Rogers Clark, February 24 . . . .140 

Stony Point captured by General Wayne, July 16 148 



iv CHRONOLOGICAL SUiMMAKY 

1779. Sullivan (Icfoated the Indians at Newtown, August 20 . . paoe 148 

Paul Jones U)ok the Serapix, 8ei>teniber 23 149 

D'Estainir and Lincoln iciiulsed at Savannah, October 9 147 

1780. Charleston surrendered to the British, May 12 150 

Battle of Camden, Aiigu»st 10 .... 151 

Arnold's treason "discovered; he fled, September 25 155 

Battle of KiufiH Mountain, October 7 153 

1781. Battle of Cowpcns, January 17 156 

Greene's celebrated retreat, January and February ...... 156 

Articles of Confederation in force, March 1 icy 

Battle of Guilford Couit House, Marcii 15 157 

Battle of Eutaw Springs, September 8 l.i7 

Surrender of Cortiwalli.s, October 19 i.59 

1782. Savannah evacuated by the British, July 11 160 

Charleston. S. C, evacuated by the British, December 14 160 

1783. Treaty of peace signe<l at Paris, September 3 161 

New York evacuated by the British, November 25 ..... ifio 

1787. Shays's rebellion in Mas.sachnsetts ir,4 

Ordinance of 1787, for tlie government of the Northwest Territory, July 13 . 163 

Constitution of the United States adopted by the ctuiveution, September 17 164 

1787-88. Constitution adopted by eleven States 164 

1789. Washington inaugurated, April 30 169 

1701. Vermont admitted to the Union, March i 244 

1792. Discovery of Columbia River by Captain Gray, May 11 247 

Kentucky admitted to the Union, June 1 244 

Whitney invented the cotton inn 172 

1794. Tlie Indians defeated by Wayne, August 20 172 

Whisky insurrection ... 172 

1705. Jay's treaty ratified by the Senate, June; by the President, August . . 173 

1796. Tennessee admitted to the Union, June 1 244 

1797. John Adams inanj^urated, March 4 175 

1798. Alien and Sedition Laws enacted 175 

1800. Capital removed to Washington 171 

1801. Thomas Jefferson inaugurated, March 4 176 

1801-05. War with Tripoli 181 

1803. Ohio admitted to the Union, February 10 244 

Louisiana purchased from France, April 30 176 

1807. The <^7«'.s«;9frtAe tired into by the Z,«'o;>«/y/, June 22 182 

The Clerttiout first ascended the Hudson 181 

Embargo on American ships. December 22 183 

1809. James Madison inaugurated, March 4 183 

1811. Action between the 7Vr*/rff«/ and the Li7/;c /)'<■//, May 16 184 

Battle of Tippecanoe, November 7 183 

1812. Louisiana admitted to the Union. April 30 244 

War declared against Gri'at Britain, June 19 184 

Detroit surrendered, August 16 185 

The f'oiistiliitioH captured the Guerriere, August 10 186 

1813. Battle of Frenchtown, January 22 . . . . • 188 

The Chesapeake captured by the Shannon, June 1 190 



CHKONOLOUICAL SUMMARY v 

1«13. . Massacre of Fort jMiiiuus, August yd . I'Agk lyi 

Ferry's victory on JjUkc Erie, Septenilier 10 189 

Battle of the Tliaiiies, October 5 190 

1814. Battle of Horseslioe Bend (Tohupeka), March 27 191 

Battle of Luudys Lane, July '25 . 192 

Washington captured by the Britisb, August 24 193 

Battle of Plattsburg and Lake Chuniplain, Sei)teinl>er 11 . . . .192 

Bombardment of Fort McHenry, September 13 193 

Hartford Convention, December 15 193 

Treaty of peace, December 24 194 

1815. Battle of New Orleans, January 8 194 

War with Algiers 195 

iSlC. Indiana admitted to tlie Union, December 11 245 

1817. James Monroe inaugurated. March 4 19G 

Mississippi admitted to the Union, I )ecembei- 10 245 

1818. Illinois admitted to the Union. Decenil)er ;i 245 

1819. Florida pui'chased of Hpain, Feliruarj' 22 200 

Alal)ama admitted to the Union, December 14 245 

1820. Missouri Compromise passed, March 3 197 

Maine admitted to the Union, March 15 245 

1821. Missouri admitted to the Union. August 10 245 

1823. Monroe Doi^trine enunciated, December 2 200 

1825. John Quiucy Adams inaugurated, March 4 201 

Erie Canal opened, October 20 202 

1829. Jackson inaugurated, March 4 203 

1831. First party national convention (tlie Antimasons') held, September . . 206 

1832. Black Hawk War 207 

Nulliticatiou In South Carolina 205 

1833. Public deposits withdrawn from Bank of the United States .... 206 
1835-42. Seminole War 207 

1836. Arkansas admitted to the Union, June 15 245 

1837. Michigan admitted to the Union, January 26 . 246 

Martin Van Buren inaugurated, March 4 208 

Business panic , ... 208 

1841. William H. Harrison inaugurated, March 4 210 

President Harrison died, April 4 210 

John Tyler inaugurated, April 6 211 

1842. Northeast boundary settled by treaty, August 9 213 

1844. First magnetic telegraph line completed 212 

1845. Florida admitted to the Union, March 3 246 

James K. Polk inaugurated, March 4 215 

Texas admitted to the Union, December 29 246 

1846. Battle of Palo Alto, May 8 215 

Congress declared war against Mexico, May 13 216 

Northwest boundary settled by treaty, June 15 221 

Monterey captured, September 24 216 

Iowa admitted to the Union, December 28 240 

1847. Battle of Buena Vista, February 23 216 

Vera Cruz captured, March 29 218 

Mexico surrendered, September 14 220 



vi CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMAKY 

l«48. Gold (liscdvered in Califoruhi, Jauuary 1« fauk '221 

Treaty of iieace with M«!.\i<'<), I'Vbniary •> -vjo 

Wisconsiu adiiiittcd to tlu- Uuion, May 'I'J 24C 

1849. General Taylor inaugurated, March "> 223 . 

1850. General Taylor died, July '.) 223 

Millard Filluiore iuauj.'urated, July 10 *. . . 223 

California adniitt«.'d to the Union, September y 246 

1S53. Franklin Pierce inaugurated, Mareh 4 22."> 

Gadsden purelia.se, by treaty with Mexico, December 30 .... 228 

18.54. Conmiodort; Perry's treaty with Japan, Mareh 31 229 

Kansas-Nebraska Bill enacted, May 30 225 

1857. Jaines Buchanan inaugurated, March 4 230 

Dred Hcott decision, Mar<h 6 230 

1858. Minnesota admitted to the Union, May 11 247 

1859. Oregon admitted to the Union, February 14 247 

1860. South Caroliiui seceded from the Union, December 20 232 

1861. f>teamer .s7(n-o///ic H>.s7 fired upon, January 9 235 

Kansas admitted into the Union as a .*^tate, January 'i9 247 

Southern Confederacy lornied at Montgomery, February 4 . . .232 

1861. Abraham Lincoln inaugurated, 3Iarch 4 249 

Fort Sumter tired upou by Confederates, .\pril 12 251 

Battle of BullP.uii, Va., July 21 256 

Battle of Wilsons Creek, Mo., August 10 . .' 258 

Forts at Ilatteras Inlet, N. C, capturetl l)y Union forces, ,\ugust JU . . 259 

Battle of Carnifex Ferry, Va., Septemlier 10 256 

Port Royal, S. C., taken by Union forces, November 7 259 

Seizure of .Mason and Slidell, November 8 259 

1862. Fort Heury, Teiin., taken by Union forces, February 6 261 

Roanoke Island, N. C, taken by Union forces, February 8 . . . . 267 
Fort Donelson, Tenu., taken by Union forces, February 16 . . . .262 

Battle of Pea Kidge, Ark., March 7, 8 262 

Battle of the .l/o;i(7o»' and the J/e/-W»i«c, Marcli 9 .269 

Newbern, N. C, taken by Union forces, March 14 268 

BattleofShiloh (Pittsburg Landing), Tenn., April 6,7 262 

Island No. 10 captured by Union forces, April 7 264 

Fort Pulaski, (Ja., cai)tured by Union forces, April 11 268 

New Orleans captured by Union forces, April 25 267 

Yorktown, Va., occupied by McClellan, May 4 271 

Jackson's Shenandoah campaign. May 23 to June 9 272 

Battle of Fair Oaks or Seven Pines, Va., May 31, June 1 272 

Memphis, Tenn., surrendered by the Confederates, June 6 . .264 

Seven Days' battles, June 25 to July 1 275 

Second battle of Bull Run, Va. August 29, 30 276 

Harpers Ferry captured by the Confederates, September 15 . . . .277 

Battle of Antietam, Md., September 17 277 

Battle of luka. .Miss., September 19 265 

Battleof Corinth, Miss., October 4. 265 

Battle of Perryville, Ky., Octobers 2M 

Battle of Fredericksburg, Va., December 13 278 



CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY 



12 



Battle of Chickasaw Bluff, Miss., December 29 ... . 

Battle of Murfreesboro, Tenn., December 31, and January 2, 1863 

Emancipation Proclamation, Januarj' 1 

Arkansas Post taken by Union forces, January 11 

Fort Sumter, S. C, bombarded by Union fleet, April 

Grant's campaign before Vicksburg, May 1-17 . 

Battle of Chancellorsville, Va., May 2, 3 

West Virginia admitted to tlie Union, June 19 . 

Battle of Gettysburg, Pa., July 1-3 ... 

Vicksburg, Miss., surrendered by the Confederates, July 

Port Hudson surrendered l)y the Confederates, July 8 

Draft Riot in New York city, July 13-16 

Fort Wagner, S. C, occupied by Union forces, September 7 

Battle of Chickamauga, Ga., September 19, 20 

Battle of Chattanooga, Tenn., November 24, 25 

Siege of Kuoxville, Tenn., raised, December 4 

Battle of Olustee, Fla., February 20 

Battle of Sabine Crossroads, La., April 8 

Fort Pillow, Tenn., captured by the Confederates, April 

Battle of Wilderness, Va., May 5, 6 

Battle of Spottsylvania, Va., May 8-12 . 

Battle of Resaca, Ga., May 14, 15 . 

Battle of New Market, Va., May 15 

Battle of Cold Harbor, Va., June 3 . 

Battle between the Kearsarf/c and the Ahibdiiia, 

Battle of Kenesaw Mountain, Ga., June 27 . 

Battle of Monocacy, Md., July 9 . . . 

Battles before Atlanta, Ga., July 20, 22, 28 . 

Mine explosion, Petersburg, Va., July 30 

Farragut entered Mobile Bay, Ala., Augusts 

Atlanta, Ga., taken, September 2 . . . 

Battle of Winche.«;ter, Va., September 19 

Battle of Cedar Creek, Va., October 19 , 

Nevada admitted to the Union, October 31 . 

Battle of Nashville, Tenn., December 15, 10 . 

Savannah, Ga., occupied by Sherman, December 21 . 

Fort Fisher, N. C, taken by Union forces, January 15 

Columbia, S. C, occupied by Shennan, February 17 . 

Charleston, S. C, occupied by Union forces, February 18 

Battles of Averysboro and Bentonville, N. C, March 16, 19 

Fort Stedman, Va., attacked by Confederates, March 25 

Battle of Five Forks, Va., April 1 

Petersburg and Richmond taken, April 2, 3 . 

Lee's army surrendered, April 9 

President Lincoln assassinated, April 14 . . . 



June 19 



1865. Andrew Johnson inaug^urated, April 15 . 

Johnston's army surrendered, April 26 . 
Thirteenth Amendment adopted, December 18 
1866-70. The seceded States readmitted to the Union 



16, 21 



viii CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY 

1867. Nol)ra8ka admitted to the Union, March 1 . 
Alaska punha.scd from Russia, l»y treaty of March 30 

1868. President .Johnson acquitted on impcaclimcut trial. May 
Fourteenth Aincudmeut adoi)ted, July 28 

1869. Ulysses .S. Cirant inaugurated, March i . 

1870. Fifteenth Amendment adopted, March 30 . . . 

1871. Treaty of Washington, May 8 

1873. Business panic 

1876. Custer massacre, Jime 25 

Colorado admitted to the Union, August 1 . . . 

1877. Rutherford B. Hayes inaugurated, March 5 
Great railroad strike, July to October .... 

1879. Specie payment of United States notes. resumed, Januar 

1881. James A. Garfield inaugurated, March 4 
President Gartield died, September 19 . 
Chester A. Arthur inaugurated, September 20 

1882. First Chinese Exclusion Act, May . . ... 

1883. Civil Service Act, January k; 

1885. Grover Cleveland inaugurated, March 4 

1887. Interstate Commerce Act, February 4 . . . . 

1889. Ben.jamin Harrison inaugurated, .March 4 . . . 
North Dakota admitted to the Union, November 2 
South Dakota admitted to tlic Union, November 2 
Montana admitted to tlie Union, .\o\cmlKU' 8 
Washington admitted to the Union, November U 

l«;tO. Idaho admitted to the Union, July 3 . . . . 

Wyoming admitted to the Union, July 10 
1893. Grover Cleveland inaugurated, March 4 

1896. Utah admitted to the Union, .January I . . . 

1897. William McKinley inaugurated, March 4 . 
1893. War with Spain begun, April 21 

Battle of Manila Bay, May 1 

Battles near Santiago. July 1, 2 ; Naval battle of .July :'. 
Hawaiian Islands annexed by joint resolution of Congr 
Santiago surrendered by the Spanish. July 17 . 
Manila captured by United States forces, August l-> 
Treaty of peace with Spain, December in . 

1890. Philippine insurrection begun, February 1 

1901. President McKinley died, September U ; Theodore Roosevelt inaug'd 

1902. United States troops withdrawii from Cuba, May 2ii 
190,5. Theodore Roosevelt reinauguratcd, March 4 
1907. Oklahoma admitted to the Union, November IG 
1909. William 11. Taft inaugurated, March 4 
1912. New Mexico admitted to the Union, .January 6 . 

Arizona admitted to the Union, Fobru.-iry 11. 
19I:i. Woodrow Wilson inaugurated, March ! . . . 

Sixteenth and Seventeenth A mendments adopt od, Feh'y 2.> and May 
1914. Military expedition sent to Mexico 

1917. War with (fcrman.v begun, April 

1918. Armistice signed, November 11 ... 



ess, July 



REFERENCES FOR READING 

STORIES IN THE HISTORY OF THE STATES for supplementary school reading 
(Amerlcau Book Company). 

Swett's Maine. Spencer's North Carolina. Thwaites's Badger {^tate. 

Brooks'sOkl Bay State. Harris's Georgia. Baldwin's Diseoeenj of the 

Stockton's i^eto Jersey. Howells's O/i/o. Old Northwest. 

Walton & Brumbaugh's Thompson's Indiana. Baldwin's Conquest of the 

Pennsylvania. Kiukead's Kentucky. Old Northicest. 

Cooke's Old Dominion. McGee'a Tennessee. Todd's A'ew York City. 

Smithey's Virginia. Mustek's Missouri. Ehoades's Philadelphia. 

INTRODUCTION. — Catlin's North American Indians; Morgan's League of the Iro- 
quois; Bancroft's Native Kacvs ; Thomas's Mound Exploration of the Bureau of Ethnol- 
ogy; Stone's Life and Times of lied Jacket, Life of Joseph Brant; Cooper's Leather 
Stocking Tales; Reeves's The Finding of Wincland the Good; Lowell's Chippewa Legend 
(poetry) ; Whittier's Bridal of Pennacook (poetr.^ ). 

EPOCH I.— Fiske's Discovery of America; Irving's Colnmlms; Helps's Spajtish 
Conquest in America; Prescott's Conquest of Mexico, Conquest of Peru; T. Irving's 
Conquest of Florida; Fronde's English Seamen in the Sixteenth Century; Payne's 
Voyages of Elizabethan Seamen ; Hawks's History of North Carolina (vol. i.) ; Park- 
man's Pioneers of France in the New World, Jesuits in North America, La Salle and the 
Discovery of the Great West; Shea's Discovery and Exploration of the Missi.<isippi Valley. 

Fiction.— Wallace's The Fair God; Simnis's The Damsel of Darien, Vascon.ielos, The 
Lily and the Totem ; Kingsley's Westward Ho! 

EPOCH II.— Fiske's Old Virginii and her Neighbours, Beginnings of New England, 
Dutch and Quaker Colonies; Palfrey's History of New England; Gritfls's Pilgrims in 
their Three Homes; Lodge's Short History of the English Colonies in America; Doyle's 
EnglLsli in America; Cooke's Virginia^; E. E. Hale's Massachusetts'-; Johnston's 
Connecticut^; Sanborn's New Hampshire; Greene's Sliorf History of Rhode Island; 
Roberts's New York i ; Scott's New Jersey ' ; Scharf's History of Delaware ; Browne's 
Maryland'' ; Moore's History of North Carolina; McCrady's History of South Carolina 
(vols. i. and ii.) ; Jones's History of Georgia; Parkman's A Half-Century of Conflict, 
Montcalm and Wolfe, Conspiracy of Pontine; Coffin's Old Times in the Colonies. 

Fiction.— Cooper's The Last of the Mohicans ; Cooke's Stories of the Old Dominion ; 
Hawthorne's Grandfather's Chair; Whittiei-'s Legends of Neto England; Irving's 
Knickerbocker's History of New York; Thackeray's The Virginians; Johnston's To 
Have and to Hold. 

EPOCH III.— Fiske's American Revolution, Critical Period of American History; 
Hart's Formation of the Union (chaps, iii.-vi.) ; Sloane's French War and the Revolu- 
tion (chaps, x.-xix.); Bancroft's History of the Fnited States (vols, v., vi.) ; Hildreth's 
' American Commonwealths sciics. - Story of the States series. 

is. 



X REFERENCES FOR READING 

History of (he TTnited /S/a/«« (vol. iii.) Chauniiit;'i« JJniled Stales, 17G6-1S()'>; Lossing's 
Field Book- of the Revolution ; Andrews's Manual of the Constitution. 

Iliogi-aphy.— Tudor's James Otis ; Hosmer's Thomas Hutchinson, Samuel Adams i ; 
Morse's Benjamin Franklin^; Lodge's George Washington^; Morse's John Adatns^; 
Sumner's Robert Morris. 

Fiction.— Coffin's Boys ofKO ; Cooper's Spy, Pilot, Lionel Lincoln ; Siuims's Partisan, 
Mellichampe, Scout, Katharine Walton, Foraycrs, Eutaw, Ford's Janice Meredith. 

Poetry.— LoDjurfellow's Paul Revere' s Ride ; Holmes's Grandmother's Story of Bunker 
Hill. Read's The Rising; Bryant's Song of Marif^n's Men. 

EPOCH IV.— Hart's Formation of the Union (chaps, vii.-xii.) ; Walker's Making of 
the Xation; Hurgess's Middle Period; McMaster's History of the People of the United 
States; Roo.sevelt's Winiiing of the West; Schouler's History of the United States {\o\n. 
i.-v.); Rhodes's History of the United States (vols, i., ii., and iii. to chap, xv.) ; Johns- 
ton's American Polilics; Drake's Making of the Great West; Wilson's Rise and Fall of 
the Slave I'oirer; Benton's Thirty Tears' Victv. 

Biography Lodge's Alexander Hamilton ', Daniel Webster^ ; Morse's Thomas Jef- 
ferson ' ; Gay's James Madison ' ; Sehurz's Henry Clay i; Von Holts's John C. Calhoun i ; 
Magruder's John Marshall ' ; Sumner's Andrew Jackson^ ; Wriffht's General Scott-. 

Fiction.— Hale's Man Without a Country, Philip Xolan's Friends; Longstreet's 
Georgia .Scenes in the First Half of the Republic; Paulding's Diverting History of John 
Bull and Brother Jonathan; C. A. Davis's Letters of J. Downing, Major; Stovre's Uncle 
Tom's Cabin ; Lowell's Biglow Papers. 

EPOCH v.— Rhodes's History of the United Slates (vols, iii., iv.); Schouler's History 
of the United States (vol. vi.) ; Comtc dc Paris's History of the Civil War; Ropes's Story 
of the Civil War ; Campaigns of the Civil War (Scribner) ; Battles and Lcd'/crs of the Civil 
War (Century); Fiske's Missi.isippi Valley in the Civil War; Blaine's Twenty Years of 
Congress (vol. i.) ; Oroelcy's American Conflict (vol. ii.); Davis's Rise and Fall of the 
Confederate Government; Stephens's ]V:ir bctu-een the .states; Dana's RcrollcrHonsofthe 
Civil War: McPhcrson's Political History of the United Stales during the < treat Rebellion. 

Biography. — Cirant's Personal Memoirs; Sherman's Memoirs; Sheridan's Memoirs; 
Morse's Lincoln^; Mahan's Farragul'; Schuckors's Salmon P. Chase; Lons and 
Wright's Memoirs of Robert E. Lee; Hughes's Joseph E. Johnston-; Mrs. Jackson's 
Stoneieall Jackson ; Mrs. Davis's Jefferson Davis. 

Fiction.— Ahltott's Battleficldx and Victory; Coffin's Marching to Victory, My Days 
and Nights on the Battle-FHeld ; Hosmer's Color Guard; Page's Marse Chan, Mch Lady; 
Soley's Sailor Boys of'r,i. 

EPOCH VI. — Andrews's History of the Last Quarter-Ccntnry; McCulloch's Men and 
Measures of Half a Century; McPherson's Political History of the United States during 
the Period of Recoil struct ion ; Wilson's History of the A mcriean People (vol. v.) ; Warner's 
Studies in the South and West; Grady's New South ; King's The Great South; Bryce'» 
American Commonwridth; Shaler's United Stales of America; Wright's Industrial Evo- 
lution of the United States: Had ley's Railroad Tranxporlation ; Morris's War with Spain ; 
McKinley, Coulomb, and Gerson's School History of the Great War. 

Biography.— Storey's Charles Sumner ^ ; Pierce's Charles Sumner; Badeau's Grant 
in Peace; Wilson's Presidents of the United States. 

Fiction.— Helen Hunt .Jackson's I{amona; Hale's Mrs. Jfcrriam's Scholars; Eg- 
gleston's A Man of Honor; Page's Red Rock; Tourg6e'8 A Fool's Errand. 

1 American Statesmen series. 2 Great Commanders series. 



DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 

When, in the coiirse of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dis- 
solve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume, 
among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the laws of 
nature and of nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of man- 
kind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. 

We hold these truths to be self-evident — that all men are created equal ; that they 
are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights ; that among these are 
life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. That, to secure these rights, governments 
are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the gov- 
erned ; that, whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, 
it is the right of the people to alter or abolish it, and to institute new government, 
laying its foundations on such principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as 
to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, in- 
deed, will dictate that governments long established should not be changed for light 
and transient causes ; and, accordingly, all experience hath shown that mankind are 
more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abol- 
ishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses 
and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, evinces a design to reduce 
them under absolute despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such 
government, and to provide new guards for their future security. Such has been the 
patient sufferance of these colonies, and such is now the necessity which constrains 
them to alter their former systems of government. The history of the present king 
of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct 
object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these States. To prove this, 
let facts be submitted to a candid world. 

1. He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary for the 
public good. 

2. He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and pressing im- 
portance, unless suspended in their operations till his assent should be obtained; 
and, when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. 

3. He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large districts of 
people, unless those people would relinquish the right of representation in the Legis- 
lature — a right inestimable to them, and formidable to tyrants only. 

4. He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, 
and distant from the repository of their public records, for the sole purpose of 
fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. 

5. He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing, with manly 
firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. 

6. He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause others to be 
elected, whereby the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, have returned 
to the people at large for their exercise ; the State remaining, in the meantime, 
exposed to all the dangers of invasions from without, and convulsions within. 

7. He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States ; for that pur- 
pose obstructing the laws for the naturalization of foreigners ; refusing to pass 

xi 



xii DEC L A li AT I OX OK I N D E P E >M) E XC E 

otht'i-s to eiic<piii-:iKL' tlii-ir iiiiKnition liithiT, and ruiBiiif? tlie conditions of new 
appropriations of lands. 

8. He has obstructed the adnunistratinn i.l' justice, liy n-fusiiit; liis assseat to 
laws for establishing judiciary powei's. 

9. He has made judges dependent on his will alone for the tenure of their 
offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. 

10. He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of officers 
to harass our people and eat out their substance. 

11. He has kept among us in times of peace, standing armies, without the con- 
sent of our Legislatures. 

12. He has affected to render the military indei)endent of, and superior to, the 
civil power. 

13. He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our 
constitutions, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his assent to tlieii- acta 
of pretended legislation ; 

14. For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us; 

15. For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any murdera 
which they should commit on the inhabitants of these States; 

16. For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world; 

17. For imposing taxes on us without our consent; 

18. For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of a trial by jury; 

19. For transporting us beyond seas, to be tried for pretended offenses; 

20. For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring province, 
establishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging its boundaries, so as 
to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same 
absolute rule into these colonies; 

21. For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and 
altering, fundamentally, the forms of our governments ; 

22. For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested 
with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 

23. He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his protection, 
and waging war against us. 

24. He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burned our towns, and 
destroyed the lives of our people. 

25. He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries to 
complete the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun with circum- 
stances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and 
totally unworthy the head of a civilized nation. 

26. He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the high seas, to 
bear arms against their country, to become the executioners of their friends and 
brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. 

27. He h;i3 excited domestic insurrection among us, and has endeavored to bring 
on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless Indian savages, whose known 
rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, and conations. 

In every stage of these oppressions we have i)etitioned for redress in the most 
humble terms; our rei)eated petitions have been answered only by repeated 
injury. A prince whose character is thus marked by every act which may define 
a tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. 

Nor have we been wanting in our attentions to our British brethren. "We have 
warned them, from time to tiino, of attempts by their legislature to extend an un- 



DECLAKATIOX OF INDEPENDENCE xiii 

warrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of 
our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and 
magnaniirdty and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to 
disavow these usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our connections 
and correspondence. They, too, have been deaf to the voice of justice and of con- 
sanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity which denounces our. 
separation, and hold them as we hold the rest of mankind — enemies in war; in 
peace, friends. 

We, therefore, the representatives of the United States of America in general 
Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the recti- 
tude of our intentions, do, in the name and by the authority of the good people 
of these colonies, solemnly publish and declare that these united colonies are, 
and of right ought to be, free and independent States ; that they are absolved 
from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political connection between 
them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved, and 
that, as free and independent States, they have full power to levy war, conclude 
peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and do all other acts and things 
which independent States may of right do. And for the support of this Declara- 
tion, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually 
pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor. 

JOHN HANCOCK. 



NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

JOSIAH BaRTLETT, 

William Whipple, 
Matthew Thornton. 

MASSACHUSETTS BAY. 
Samuel Adams, 
John Adams, 
Robert Treat Paine, 
Elbridge Gerry. 

RHODE ISLAND 
Stephen Hopkins, 
William Elleet. 

CONNECTICUT. 
Roger Sherman, 
Samuel Huntington, 
William Williams. 
Oliver Wolcott. 

NEW YORK. 
William Floyd, 
Philip Livingston, 
Francis Lewls, 
Lewis Morris. 



NEW JERSEY. 
Richard Stockton, 
John Wither^poon, 
Francis Hopkinson, 
John Hart, 
Abraham Clark. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 
Robert Morris, 
Benjamin Rush. 
Benjamin Franklin, 
.John Morton, 
George Clymer, 
James Smith, 
George Taylor, 
.James Wilson, 
George Ross. 

DELAWARE. 

C.«SAR Rodney, 
George Read, 
Thomas M'Kean. 

AFARYLAND. 

Samuel Chase, 
Willi \M Paca, 
Thomas Stone, 



Charles Carroll, of Car- 
rollton. 

VIRGINIA. 

George Wythe, 
Richard Henry Lee, 
Thomas Jefferson, 
Benjamin Harrison, 
Thomas Nelson, Jun., 
Francis Lightfoot Lee, 
Carter Braxton. 

NORTH CAROLINA. 
William Hooper, 
Joseph Hewes, 
John Penn. 

SOUTH CAROLINA. 
Edward Rutledge, 
Thomas Heyward, Jun., 
Thoma!* Lynch, Jun., 
Arthur Middleton. 

(iEORGIA. 

Button Gwinnett, 
Lyman Hall, 
George Walton. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 

WE, the People of the United States, in order to form a more perfect 
union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the 
common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty 
to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the 
United States of America. 

ARTICLE I.— Legislative Department. 

SECTION I. All legislative powei-s herein granted shall be vested in a Con- 
gress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Repre- 
sentatives. 

SECTION n.— Clause 1. The House of Representatives shall be composed of 
members chosen every second year by the people of the several States, and the 
electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the 
most numerous branch of the State Legislature. 

Clause 2. No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained to 
the age of twenty-flvo years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States, 
and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State in which he 
shall be chosen. 

Clause y. Representatives and direct taxes sliall bo apportioned among the sev- 
eral States which may bo included within this Union, according to their respective 
nximbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, 
including those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, 
three fifths of all other persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within three 
years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within cverj' 
subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The num- 
ber of representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousiind, but each State 
shall have at least one representative; and until such enumeration shall be made, 
the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three ; Massachusetts, eight ; 
Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, one ; Connecticut, five ; New York, six ; 
New Jersey, four ; Pennsylvania, eight ; Delaware, one ; Maryland, six ; Virginia, 
ten ; North Carolina, five ; South Carolina, five ; and Georgia, three. 

Pbbambli.— Name the six objects of the ConBtitution. Who " ordained and established " this ConstitutioD ? Is 
the " uiiiou" one of states or of people? What branches of government are established under the first three articles 
of the Constitution? 

Articlk l.~S'ctio7i 1. What body baa the "power of legislation"? (.Note. — The "power of legislation" is 
■ that of makincr laws.) Of what does Congress consi>t7 

Section 2. Who compose the House of Representatives 7 Who choose the representatives ? WTiat are the neces- 
sary qualiflcatinns of an elector (or vot»T) for a representative? How long is the term of a representative? Name 
the three qualiScatious necessary for a representative. Is a foreign-born person eligible to the office of representa- 
tive? How are representatives and direct taxes to be apportioned among the slates? How was the representativa 
population of the different states to be determined? What liniil is there to the number of representatives? Is 
every state entitled to representation ? How many members were there In the first House of Representatives? How 
often must the Census be taken? How are vacancies in the House to be filled? Who elect the officers of the House? 

xiv 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xv 

Clause 4. WHien vacancies happen in the representation from any State, the 
executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. 

Clause 5. The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and other 
cflBcers ; and shaU have the sole power of impeachment. 

SECTION m.— Clause 1. The Senate of the United States shall be composed 
of two senators from each State, [chosen by the Legislature thereof,] for six years; 
and each senator shall have one vote. 

Clause 2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first 
election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes. The seats of 
the senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year ; 
of the second class, at the expiration of the fourth year ; and of the third class, at 
the expiration of the sixth year, so that one third may be chosen every second year ; 
[and if vacancies happen by resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the Legis- 
lature of any State, the executive thereof may make temporary appointments until 
the next meeting of the Legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies.] 

Clause 3. No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the age of 
thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, 
■when elected, be an inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen. 

Clause 4. The Vice President of the United States shall be president of the 
Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 

Clause 5. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a president pro 
tempore, in the absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise the office 
of President of the United States. 

Clause 6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments : when 
sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or a&rmation. "When the Presi- 
dent of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside ; and no person 
shall be convicted without the concurrence of two thirds of the members present. 

Clause 7. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to 
removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust, 
or profit under the United States ; but the party convicted shall nevertheless be 
liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, and punishment, according to law. 

SECTION IV.— Clause 1. T|ie times, places, and manner of holding elections 
for senators and representatives shall bo prescribed in each State by the Legisla- 
ture thereof; but the Congress may at any time, by law, make or alter such 
regulations, except as to the places of choosing senators. 

WTiat body has the sole power of impeachment? (Notes. — The first census was taken in 1790;the " ratio of rei>- 
resentation " being one representative for 33.000 persons. The number of representatives Ls fixed by law each dec- 
ade. The law of 1911 made it 435, and the "ratio of representation", according to the census of 1910, is 211,877 
persons for each representative. In March of the odd year there is a new House of Representatives. Each or- 
ganized territory has a delegate who can sit in the House, but not vote. The states are each divided, by its own 
laws, into congressional districts, as many as the number of representatives to which it is entitled ; and the elec- 
tors in each one of these vote for their representative. The phrase "all other persons " means "slaves" ; but this 
has been amended by the XlVth Amendment. The speaker is always a member of the House ; the clerk, ser- 
geant-at-arms, chaplain, etc., are not members. To impeach an officer is to accuse him of official misconduct.) 

Section 3. Of how many members does the Senate of the United States consist? What is a senator's term of 
office? Explain the classification originally made. What was the object of this classification? State the 
three qualifications necessary for a senator. Who ijs the president of the Senate ? When only can he vote"? Who 
chooses the other officers of the Senate? When can the Senate choose a president vro tempore (for the time 
being) ? What " sole power " does the Senate possess ? Who presides when the President of the United States is 
impeached? What number is needed to convict ? What penalties can be inflicted in case of conviction? Is a 
person so convicted liable to a trial at law for the same offense? (Note. — Amendment XVII superseded the 
parts of Section 3 printed in brackets; it provides for the election of senators by vote of the people.) 

Section i. Who prescribes the " time, places, and manner" of electing representatives and jenators ? What 



xvi CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED t^lATES 

CLArsF, 2. Tho ConsTCSs shall asspmblo at least oncf in every year, and such 
meeting shall bn on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by law 
appoint a different day. 

SECTION v.— Clause 1. Each house shall be tho judge of the elections, re- 
turns, and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall con- 
stitute a quorum to do business ; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to 
day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, in such 
manner, and under such penalties, as each house may provide. 

Clause 2. Each house may determine th? rules of its proceedings, punish its mem- 
bers for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two thirds, exp)el a member. 

Clause 3. Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to 
time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment require 
secrecy, and the yeas and nays of the members of either house on any question 
shall, at the desire of one fifth pf those present, be entered on the journal. 

Clause 4. Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall, without the 
consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place 
than that in which the two houses shall be sitting. 

SECTION VI. — Clause 1. The senators and representatives shall receive a com- 
pensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the treasury of 
the United States. They shall in all cases, except treason, felony, and breach of the 
peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session of their re- 
spective hoases, and in going to and returning from the same ; and for any speech 
or debate in either house, they shall not be questioned in any other place. 

Clause 2. No senator or representative shall, during the time for which he was 
elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the United States, 
which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been in- 
creased, during such time ; and no person holding any office under the United 
States shall be a member of either house during his continuance in office. 

SECTION VTI.— Clau.oe 1. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the 
House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with amend- 
ments, as on other bills. 

Clause 2. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the 
Senate, shall, before it become a law, be presented to the President of the United 
States ; if he approve, ho shall sign it, but if not, he shall return it, with his objec- 
tions, to that house in which it shall have originated, who shaU enter the objections 

power has Congress over the state regulations ? How often, and when, must Congress meet? (Note. — Congress 
prescribed the manner of electing senators, before 1913, as follows : The two branches of the Legislature shall 
meet separately and vote viva voce. They shall then as-semble together, and if they agree on any person, he 
shall be eonxidered duly elected; if they disagree, the joint mcpting shall vote viva voce from day to day, at 
12 M. until a choice is made. (For elections since 1913, see Amendment XVII.) 

Section 5. Who decides upon the " elections, returns and Qualifications " of the representatives and of the 
senators? What number of the members i» necessary for a quorum (needed to do business) ? What business can 
a minority transact? W'hat power is given each house of Congress of making and enforcing rules? What is the 
law with regard to keeping and publishing a journal of the proceedings? When must the yeas and nays be 
entered on the journal? What restriction is there upon the time and place of adjournment? 

Section G. Who fixes and pays the salaries of members of Congress ? What special privileges are granted to 
members of Congress? To what o&ces are members of Congress ineligible? Can a Congressman hold another 
ofiice at the same time? 

Section 7. What bills must originate in the House of Representatives? What authority is given the Senate 
with regard to such bills ? Describe the three ways in which a bill may become a law — ( 1 ) With the President'! 
concurrence ; (2) over hia veto (I forbid) ; and (3) by non-return within ten days. What " orden, fMOlutioBi. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xvii 

at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsideration, 
two thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the 
objections, to the other house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if ap- 
proved by two thirds of that house, it shall become a law. But in all such cases the 
votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the per- 
sons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each house re- 
spectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days (Sunday 
excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like 
manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent 
its return, in which case it shall not be a law. 

Clause 3. Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the Senate 
and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of adjourn- 
ment) shall be presented to the President of the United States ; and before the same 
shall take effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be 
repassed by two thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to 
the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. 

SECTION VTII.— Clacse 1. The Congress shall have power to lay and collect 
taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common 
defense and general welfare of the United States; but all duties, imposts, and 
excises shall be uniform, throughout the United States ; 

Clause 2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States ; 

Clause 3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several 
States, and with the Indian tribes ; 

Clause 4. To establish an vmiform rule of naturalization, and imiform laws on 
the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States ; 

Clause 5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and 
fix the standard of weights and measures ; 

Clause 6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and 
current coin of the United States ; 

Clause 7. To establish post offices and post roads ; 

Clause 8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing, for 
limited times, to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective 
writings and discoveries; 

and votes " m\ist be submitted to the President ? What is the object of this provision ? {Notes, — In case a va- 
cancy occurs in the representation of any state in either house of Congress, the governor of the state calls a special 
election to choose a representative or senator (as the case may be) for the unexpired term ; except tha.t the laws 
of any state may give the governor power to make a temporary appointment of a senator. The method of repre- 
sentation in the Senate gives in that body perfect equality to all the States, Rhode Island having the same power 
as New York. A senator serves for six years, a representative for two. The Senate tries an officer for misconduct, 
but he must be impeached by the House of Representatives. The salary of a Congressman is now $7,500 per 
year, and mileage (20 cents per mile for every mile of travel by the usual route incoming and going). The 
Speaker of the Hoiise and the president pro tempore of the Senate have each a salary of .$12,000 per year. One 
third of the Senate retire from office every two years. By the term " a Congress" is meant the body of senators 
and representatives holding office during any one representative term of two years ; the Congress which began 
its term March 4, 1901, was the 57th. Each Congress "ends at noon of the 4th of March next succeeding the be- 
ginning of its second regular session." The classification of the Senate makes it a more efficient and conservative 
body than the House, since in the former there are always two thirds of the number old members, while the 
House is all new every two years. If the president of the Senate were a senator, it would give extra power to 
one state, which would be contrary to the plan of that body. 

Section 8. These eighteen clauses enumerate the powers oruntid to Congress. What power has Congress with 
regard to taxes? Duties or imposts (taxes on imported articles) ? (Duties on exports are prohibited by Sec. 0. 
Clauses.) Excises(taxes on articles produced in the country) .' Borrowing money' Regulating commerce? Natu- 
ralization? Bankruptcies? Coining money? Counterfeiting- Post offices and post roads? Authors and inventors? 
Inferior courts ? Piracies? Declariiig war ? Raising and supporting armies ? A navy? Government of the land 



xviii CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 

Clause 9. To roiistitutp tribunals inferior to tlio Supreme Court ; 

Clause 10. To dellue and punish piracies and felonies fommittt-d on tlie liigb 
Beas, aud offenses against the law of nations; 

Clause 11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisiil, and make 
rules concerning captures on land and water ; 

Clause 12. To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that 
use shall bo for a longer term than two years ; 

Clause 1.3. To provide and maintain a navy ; 

Clause 14. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and 
naval forces ; 

Clause 1.">. To provide for calling forth tho militia to execute the laws of the 
Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions; 

Clause 10. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and 
for governing .such part of them a.s maybe employed in the service of the United 
States, resei-ving to the States respectively the apix)intment of the officers, and the 
authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress ; 

Clause 17. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever over such 
district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular States, 
and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the government of the United 
States, and to exerci.so like authority over all places purchased by the consent of 
the Legislature of the State in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, 
magazines, arsenals, dock-yards, and other needful buildings ;— And 

Clause 18. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying 
into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitu- 
tion in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof. 

SECTION IX.— Clause 1. The migration or importation of such persons as any 
of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the 
Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty 
may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person. 

Clause 2. The i)rivilege of the -writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, 
unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it. 

Clause 3. No bill of attainder or ex-post-facto law shall be passed. 

Clause 4. No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless i:i proportion 
to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken. 

Clause 6. No tax or duty shall bo laid on articles exported from any State. 

and naval forces ? Calling forth the militia t Organiitog the militia? Over what places has Congress exclusive 
legislation? What power is Hually given to Congress to enable it to enforce Its authority? What four restrictions 
upon the Congressional powers arc made in this section? (See clauses L 2, 16 and 17.) {.Votea.— Taxes may be 
uitlier direct or indirect : tliu former are laid ■lirectly upon persons or property ; tl)e latter upon articles imported 
or consumed. Naturalization Is the process oy wbicli a foreign-born |Kr8»n becoincB a citi/eii. The procesi of 
natarallzation Is as follows : (1.) The person declares, on oath l>cfore the proper authority, his intention of becoming 
a citizen of the United States. (2.) Two years, at least, having elapsed, the per:ion takes the oath of allegiance, 
when he must prove by witness that he has resided in the United States five years and In the state where he 
seeks to be naturalized one year; that he has borne a good moral character, and has been well-disposed toward 
the government. The copyright, or exclusive right of publishing a book, Is given to an author for 28 years, with 
the privilege of extension '.'8 years longer. An intematlonul copyright law was enacted Ic 1891. A patent is 
now grunted to an inventor for 17 years, without the privilege of extension. Any crime punishable with death 
is a felony. " Letters of marque and reprisal " are commissions given to persons authorizing them to seize tlio 
property of another natloii. By the term " high seas '' is meant the open sea, the highway of nations.) 

5cc(ton 9. Eight clauses now follow, enumerating the powers denied to Congress. What prohibition was made 
concerning the slave-trade? Writ of habeas corpus? Rill of atulnder ? Ex-post-faoto law? Direct tax? Exports 
from any state? Trade between the United States? Payments from the Treasury? Titles of nobility? United 
States office-bolder receiving presents from a foreign power? (iVu(c«. -Tlie hrst clause relerred lotlie slave trade. 



CONSTITUTION OF T II K liNI'l'KJ) STATES xix 

Clause 6. No preference sliall be given liy any vcgulation of rommerce or 
revenue to the ports of one State over those of another ; nor shall vessels bound 
to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. 

Clause 7. No money shall be drawn from the treasury but in consequence of 
appropriations made by law : and a regular- statement and account of the receipts 
and expenditures of all public money shall bo published from time to time. 

Clause 8. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States : And no 
person holding any office of profit or trust under them, shall, without the consent 
of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title, of any kind 
whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state. 

SECTION X.— Clause 1. No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or con- 
federation ; grant letters of marque and reprisal ; coin mpney ; emit bills of 
credit; make any thing biit gold and silver loin a tender in payment of debts; 
pass any bill of attainder, ex-post-facto law, or law impairing the obligation of 
contracts, or grant any title of nobility. 

Clause 2. No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any impost or 
duties on imports or exports, except what maybe absolutely necessary for executing 
its inspection laws ; and the net produce of all duties and impost, laid by any State 
on imports or exports, shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States ; and 
all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the Congress. 

Clause 3. No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of 
tonnage, keep troops, or ships of war, in time of peace, enter into any agreement 
or compact with another State, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless 
actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay, 

ARTICLE II. — Executive Department. 

SECTION I. — Clause 1. The executive power shall be vested in a President of 
the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four 
yeare, and, together vnth the Vice President, chosen for the same term, bo elected 
as follows : 

Clause 2. Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the Legislature thereof 
may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of senators and 
representatives to which the State maybe entitled ia the Congress; but no sena- 
tor or representative, or person holding an office of trust or profit under the 
United States, shall be appointed an elector. 

or the importation of negroes from Africa for tbe purpose of enslaving them. A law was i assed prohibiting the 
trade after January 1, 1808 and in 1820 the trad.' was declared to be piracy. A writ ot habeas corpus is a written 
order from a magistrate directing that a certain person shall be brought before him ; its object is to guard against 
false imprisonment or trial iu a prejudiced court. A bill of attainder is an English term, meaning an act which 
without trial inflicts death fir treason: attainder of treason can not in the United States work "corruption of 
blood" so as to prevent a person from transmitting lands to his descendants. An c^i-post-facto law makes an act 
criminal or penal which was not so at the time it was committed. A United States office-holder, wishing to accept 
a present or distinction offered him by any foreign power, must ask permission of Congress before he can re- 
ceive it.) 

Section 10. Three clauses now follow enumerating the powers denied to tke several States. What prohibition 
was made with regard to treaties 7 Letters of marque and reprisal 7 Coinage of money 7 Issuing bills of credit 
(bills to circulate as money)? Making any other legal tender than gold or silver? A bill of attainder? An ex-post- 
facto law? The impairing of contracts? Titles of nobility ? Imposts? Keeping troops? Making peace or war? 

Abticle 11.— Section 1. In whom is the executive power vested? (jVote.— The executive power is that of exe- 
cuting the laws.) How long is the President's term of office ? The Vice President's ? Who are the presidential 
electors ? Ilow many are there from each state ? Who are ineligible to the office ? ( Note.— The next clause in the 
original Constitution described the method of electing a I'residcnt ( pp. 105, 180), hut this has been superseded by the 



XX CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 

Clause 3. The CongTPss may determine the time of choosing the electors, and 
the day on which they shall give their votes ; which day shall be the same 
throughout the United States. 

Clause 4. No person except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of the United 
States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall bo eligible to the 
office of President ; neither shall uiiy person be eligible to that office who shall 
not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years resident 
within the United States. 

Clause 5. In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, 
resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office, 
the same shall devolve on the Vice President, and the Congress may by law pro- 
vide for the ca.se of removal, death, resignation, or inability, both of the Presi- 
dent and Vice President, declaring what officer shall then act as President; and 
such officer shall act accordingly until the disability be removed, or a President 
shall be elected. 

Clause C. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a com- 
pensation which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for 
which he shall have been elected, and ho shall not receive within that period any 
other emolument from the United States, or any of them. 

Clause 7. Before he enter on the execution of his office, ho shall take the fol- 
lowing oath or affirmation :— " I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfiilly 
execute the office of President of the United States, and will, to the best of my 
ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States." 

SECTION n.— Clause 1. The President shall bo commander in chief of the army 
and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several States, when called 
into the actual service of the United States ; he may require the opinion, in writing, 
of the principal officer in each of the executive departments, upon any subject relating 
to the duties of their respective offices ; and he shall have power to grant I'eprieves 
and pai'dons for offenses against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. 

Clause 2. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the 
Senate, to make treaties, provided two thirds of the senators present concur; and 
he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of the Senate shall 
appoint ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, judges of the Supremo 
Court, and all other officers of the United States, whose appointments are not 
herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law; but the 
Congress may by law vest tho appointment of such inferior officers, as they think 
proper, in the President alone, in tho courts of law, or in the heads of departments. 

Xllth Aiiipmlnicnt.; What power Ims Congress over tile electors? What arc the iienssary inaiificatiuiis for the 
office ol I'resiilent .- In case of a vacancy, who wouU hecome President? (.Vo(f.— In ca«e of a vacancy in the office of 
botli President and Vice President, the office of President wiU devolve, in regular succcesion, upon the members of 
the cabinet (page 328i. The electors are now chosen on "the Tuesday next after the flrst Monday in the last 
November " of each presidential term of office. The ilectors meet to cast their ballots, generally at the capital 
of each state, on "the second Monday in January next following their appointment." WUen the plan 
of cboosing electors was origiDally adopted, it wa.s intcuded tu cboosc good mcD who should them:jelve8 select 
the President; but it soon came about that the electors were pleilied to their respective candidates before their 
own election. The President's salary is fi^d.OOO per ye»r, together with the use of the White Bouse.) Can the 
salary of a President bo changed during his term of ofBiie? Can be receive any other emolument from the national 
or any state government? Repeat the President's oath of oflQcc. 

Section 2. Three clauses now follow enumerating the powrm qranted to the Pretident. What authority has 
the President over the United States army and navy? State militia? The chief officers of the different executive 
departmenu? (See pp. 171, 329.) Reprieves ami panhiu^ ? The malting of treaties? Appoialmeot uf ambassa- 
dors? Judges of the i^upremc Coort, etc.? Filling vacancies? 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xxi 

Clause 3. The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may 
happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions which shall 
expire at the end of their next session. 

SECTION m.— He shall from time to time give to the Congress information of the 
state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall 
judge necessary and expedient ; he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both 
houses, or either of them, and in case of disagreement between them with respect to 
the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper ; 
he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers ; he shall take care that the 
laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the officers of the United States. 

SECTION rV. — The President, Vice President, and all civil officers of the 
United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and convictioii 
of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. 



ARTICLE III.— Judicial Department. 

SECTION I.— The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one 
Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time 
ordain and establish. The judges, both of the Supreme and inferior courts, shall hold 
their offices during good behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services 
a compensation which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office. 

SECTION II.— Clause 1. The judicial power shall c^xtend to all cases, in law and 
equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties 
made, or which shall be made, undel* their authority ;— to all cases affecting ambas-' 
sadors, other public ministers, and consuls ;— to all cases of admiralty and maritimo 
jurisdiction ;— to controversies to which the United States shall be a party ;— to con- 
troversies between two or more States ;— between a State and citizens of another 
State ;— between citizens of different States ;— between citizens of the same State 
claiming lands under grants of different States, and between a State, or the citizens 
thereof, and foreign states, citizens, or subjects. 

Clause 2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and con- 
suls, and those in which a State shall be party, the Supreme Court shall have 
original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned, the Supreme Court 
shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions 
and under such regulations as the Congress shall malce. 

Sections. Define the duties o/ the President. Name these duties with regard (1) to Congress, (2) to ambas- 
sadors, and (3) to United States officers. (Note. — Washington and Adams in person read tlieir messages to 
Congress ; the present plan of sending the message by a privat ■ secretary was commenced by Jefferson. ) 

Section 4. For what crimes and in what way may any United States orticer be removed from otfire ? 

Abticle IW.— Seclion 1. In what is the judicial power of the United States vested? (Ao(e.— The judicial 
power is tl^at of interfireting and applying the laws.) How long do the judges hold office? Can their salary be 
changed during their term of office ? 

Section 2 defines the jurisdiction of the TTniled States Courts. Name the cases to which the Judicial power of 
the United States extends. In what cases does the Suprejne Court have original jurisdiction- Appellate juris- 
diction? What is the law witli regard to trial by jury ? Where must such a trial be held? Where may a crime 
t)e committed "not within a state ? " {.Voles.— The. Supreme Court consists of a chief justice and eight nssocinte 
Justices. The salary ot the chief justice is $15,000 and that of an associati^ •$U,500 per annum. This court meets 
nt iVashiugton annually nn the firiit Wednesday in Ilecenibcr. A citizen of the District of Cohmiliin. within the 
meaning of the Constitution as above, is not a citizen of a state. By original jurisdiction is meant the court in 
wbicb the case begins : by appellate, is indicated a trial after ail appeal from a lower court. ) 

/ 



xxii CONSTITUTION OV THE UNITED STATES 

Clause 3. The trial f>f all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by 
jury, and such trial shall be held in the State where the said crimes shall have 
been committed ; but when not committed within any State, the trial shall be at 
such place or places as the Congress may by law have directed. 

SECTION m.— Clause 1. Treason against the United States shall consist only 
in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid 
and comfort. 

Clau.se 2. No person shall be convicted of treason, unless on the testimony of 
two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court. 

Clause 3. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment nf treason ; 
but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture, except 
during the life of the person attainted. 

ARTICLE IV. — General Provisions. 

SECTION I.— Full faitlji and credit shall be given in each State to the public 
acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other State; and the Congress 
may by general laws prescribe the manner in which such acts, records, and pro- 
ceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. 

SECTION II.— Clause 1. The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all 
privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States. 

Clause 2. A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime, 
who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, shall, on demand of 
the executive authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be 
removed to the State having jurisdiction of the crime. 

Clause 3. No person held to service or labor in one State, under the laws 
thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regulation 
therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be delivered up on 
claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due. 

SECTION III.— Clau.se 1. New States may be admitted by the Congress into 
this Union ; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction 
of any other State ; nor any State be formed by the junction of two or more 
States, or parts of States, without the consent of the Legislatures of the States 
concerned as well as of the Congress. 

Clause 2. The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful 
rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging to the 
United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to 
prejudice any claims of the United States, or of any particular State. 

SECTION TV.— The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union 
a republican form of government, and shall protect each of them against inva- 



Section S. In what docs treason consist? What proof is required? Who fixes the punishment? What limit 
18 assigned? 

Abticle l\'.— Section 1. What Is the law with regard to state records, judicial proceedings, etc.? 

Section 2. What privileges has the citizen of one state in all the others? Can a criminal or an apprentice 
escape by fleeing into another state? (yot«.— Clause 3 originally included fugitive slaves, but that application was 
annulled by the Xlllth Amendment.) 

Section 3. State the law with regard to the fiiriuatiuu aud admissiuu of new states. What power has Congrese 
over the territory and property of the United States ? 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xxiii 

sion, and on application of the Legislature, or of the executive (when the Legis- 
lature can not be convened) against domestic violence. 

ARTICLE V. — Power of Amendment. 

The Congress, whenever two thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary, shall 
propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the application of the Ijegislatures 
of two thirds of the several States, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, 
which, in either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this Con- 
stitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three fourths of the several States, or 
by conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification 
may be proposed by the Congress ; provided that no amendment which may be made 
prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner affect 
the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article; and that no 
State, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. 

ARTICLE VI. — Miscellaneous Provisions. 

Clause 1. All debts contracted, and engagements entered into, before the adoj)- 
tion of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this 
Constitution, as under the confederation. 

Clause S. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be 
made in pursuance thereof ; and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under 
the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land ; and the 
judges in every State shall be bound thereby, any thing in the Constitution or 
laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding. 

Clause 3. The senators and representatives before mentioned, and the members 
of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, both of 
the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by oath or affirmation 
to support this Constitution ; but no religious test shall ever be reqmred as a 
qualification to any office or public trust under the. United States. 

ARTICLE VII. — Ratification of the Constitution. 

The ratification of the conventions of nine States shall bo sufficient for the 
establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the same. 

Done in convention, by the unanimous consent of the States present, the 
seventeenth day of September, in the year of our Lord one thousand 
seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the independence of the 
United States of America the twelfth. 

In witness whereof, we have hereunto subscribed our names. 

GEORGE WASHINGTON, President and Dejmty from Virginia. 
(Signed also by thirty-eight other deputies, from twelve States.) 

Section 4. What inu>t Congre-s guarantee to every state? When must Congress protect the states? 

Article V. — State the two ways in which amendments to the Constitution may he proposed. The two ways 
in which they may he ratiSed. What restriction in this article has now lost all force? What provision for the 
hcnefit of the smaller states is attached t^ this article ? 

Article VI. —What debts did the United States assume when the Constitution was adopted? What is the 
supreme law of the land ? Who are required lo take an oath or affirmation to support the Constitution of the 
United States? Can a religious test be exacted? 



XXIV COXSTITUTIOX OF THE L'NITKD STATES 



AMENDMENTS 

To the Constitution of the United States, Ratified according to the 
Provisions of the Fifth Article of the Foregoing Constitution. 

ARTICLE I.— Congress shall make no law respecting an estaljlishinent of religion, 
or prohibiting the free exercise thereof ; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the 
press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the govern- 
ment for redress of grievances. 

ARTICLE TI. — A well-regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free 
State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. 

ARTICLE III.— No soldiers shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house, 
without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be pre- 
scribed by law. 

ARTICLE rV.— The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, 
papers, and effects, against unrea.sonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, 
and no warrants shall issue, but upon probal)le cause, supported by oath or aflftrma- 
tion, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things 
to be seized. 

ARTICLE v.— No person shall bo held to answer for a capital or othoi-wise 
infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except 
in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual 
sei'vice in time of war and public danger ; nor shall any person be subject for the 
same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled 
in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, 
liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken 
for public use, without ju.st compensation. 

ARTICLE VT.— In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right 
ti) a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein 
the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously 
ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusa- 
tion ; to bo confronted with the ■witne.sses against him ; to have compulsory i)ro- 
cess for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for 
liis defense. 

Article VII. What was necessary for the adoption of this Constitution? (Note. p. 164.) In what year 
was it adopted ? 

Amendments. (Notes. — The first ten amendments were proposed in 1789 at the first session of the First 
ConKresa, and in 1791 were declared adopted. They are of the nature of a Bill of Rishts. and were pa.ssed in 
order to satisfy those who complained that the Constitution d'd not sufficiently guard the righl.s of the people.) 

Article I. What guarantees are provided concerning religious freedom? Freedom of speech and the 
press? Peaceable a.ssembly and petition? 

Article II. What guarantee is given with regard to the right of bearing arms? 

Article III. What is provided with regard to (juartering soldiers upon citizens? 

Article IV. What is provided with regard to unreasonable searches and warrants? 

Article V. What provisions are made with regard to a trial for capital offenses? Can « person be tried 
twice for the same crime? Can a criminal be forccil to witness against himself? When tan private property 
be taken for the public use? 

Article \'I. What important rigbts arc secured to the accused in case of a criminal prosecution? 



CONSTITUTIOK' OF THE UNITED STATES xxv 

ARTICLE VII.— In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall 
exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact 
tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States 
than according to the rules of common law. 

ARTICLE Vm.— Excessive bail shall not be reqtdred, nor excessive fines im- 
posed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 

ARTICLE IX.— The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights, shall not 
be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. 

ARTICLE X.— The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitu- 
tion, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or 
to the people. 

ARTICLE XI.— The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed 
to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of 
the United States by citizens of another State, or by citizens or subjects of any 
foreign state. 

ARTICLE Xn.— The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by 
ballot for President and Vice President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an 
inhabitant of the same State with themselves ; they shall name in their ballots 
the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as 
Vice President ; and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as Presi- 
dent, and of all persons voted for as Vice President, and of the number of votes 
for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat 
of the government of the United estates, directed to the president of the Senate ;— 
the president of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of 
Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted; — 
the person having the greatest number of votes for President, shall be the Presi- 
dent, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; 
and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest 
numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House 
of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in 
choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from 
each State having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member 
or members from two thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall 
be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a 
President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the foiirth 
daj' of March next following, then the Vice President shall act as President, as in 
the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President. The 
person having the greatest number of votes as Vice President, shall be the Vice 
President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; 

Article VII. When is the right of iury trial guaranteed ? How must a fact tried by a jury be re-examined 7 

Article VIII. What guarantee is given with regard to excessive bail or fine and unusual punishment? 

Article IX. Does the enumeration of certain rights in the Constitution have any effect upon those not 
enumerated? 

Article X. What declaration is made about powers neither delegated to Congress nor forbidden the states ? 

Article XI. (Note. — This amendment wa.s proposed at the first session of the Third Congress. 1794. and 
declared adopted in 1798.) What restriction is placed on the judicial power of the United States? Can the 
citizens of one state bring a suit against another state? 

Article XII. (Nntt. — This amendment was proposed at the first session of the Eighth Congress. 1803. and 
declared adopted in 1804. It grew up out of the contest in the House of Representatives at the time of Jefferson's 



xxvi CONSTITUTION OP THE UNITED STATES 

and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list 
the Senate shall choose the Vice President ; a quorum for the purpose shall consist 
of two thirds of the whole number of senators, and a majority of the whole num- 
ber shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to 
the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice President of the United 
States. 

AKTICLE XITI.— Section 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except 
as a punishment for crime, whereof the pereon shall have been duly convicted, 
shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. 

Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate 
legislation. 

ARTICLE XrV.— Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United 
States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States 
and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law 
which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States ; 
nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due 
process of law, nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection 
of the la\\fs. 

Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States accord- 
ing to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each 
State excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for 
the choice of electors for President and Vice President of the United States, 
representatives in Congress, the executive or judicial officers of a State, or the 
members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of 
such State, being twenty-one years of age and citizens of the United States, or in 
any way abridged except for jiarticlpation in rebellion or other crime, the basis of 
representation therein shall be i-educcd in the proportion which the number of such 
male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of 
age in such State. 

Section 3. No person shall be a senator or representative in Congress, or elector 
of President and Vice President, or hold any office, civil or miUtary, under the 
United States, or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath as a mem- 
ber of Congress, or as an officer of tlio United States, or as a member of any State 
Legislature, or as fin executive or judicial offlcer of any State, to support the Consti- 
tution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against 
the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may, by a 
vote of two thirds of each house, remove such disability. 

Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by 
law, including debts incurnsd for payment of pension and bounties for services in 
suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not bo questioned. But neither the 
United States nor any State shall assume oi' pay any debt or obligation inciirred 

electioQ ; he was not chosen until the 36th ballot.) Describe in fuU the mode of choosing the President by the 
electors. The Vice President. Stato the essential qualifications of the Vice President. (See Art. II., Sec. I. 
Clause 4.) In case there is no choice by the electors, how is the President elected? Describe the mode of elec- 
tion in the House. If a President should not be i-hoscn by March 4. who would act as President? 

Article XIII. (Nitlf. — This amendment wh.'^ proposed at the sei'ond session of the Thirty-eiRhth Con- 
gress. ISfi."), and declared adopted in l«(i.'>. 1 1 Krew out i.( the ( ivil War. See p. 314.) Hepeat the amendment 
abolishing slavery and involuntary servitude in the United States. 

ArticleXIV. (ffolc. — This ameudnieut was adopted in 1808. .Sec p. 315.) Who are citizens of the United 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xxvii 

in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for tlie 
loss or emancipation of any slave ; but all such debts, obligations, and claims 
shall be held illegal and void. 

Section 5. Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, 
the provisions of this article. 

ABTICLE XV.— Section 1. The rights of citizens of the United States to vote 
shall not be denied or abridged by the United States, or by any State, on account 
of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. 

Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate 
legislation. 

AKTICLE XVI.— The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on 
incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several 
States, and without regard to any census or enumeration. 

ARTICLE XVII.— The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two sena- 
tors from each State, elected by the people thereof, for six yearw ; -and each seqator 
shall have one vote. The electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite 
for electors of the most numerous branch of the State Legislatures. 

When vacancies happen in the representation of any State in the Senate, the 
executive authority of such State shaU issue writs of election to fill such vacancies : 
Provided, That the Legislature of any State may empower the executive thereof to 
make temporary appointments until the people fill the vacancies by election as the 
Legislature may direct. 

This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election or term of any 
senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the Constitution. 

ARTICLE XVni.— Section 1. After one year from the ratification of this article 
the manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors within, the importa- 
tion thereof into, or the exportation thereof from the United States and all territory 
subject to the jurisdiction thereof for beverage purposes is hereby prohibited. 

Section 2. The Congress and the several States shall have concurrent power to 
enforce this article by appropriate legislation. 

Section 3. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an 
amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of the several States, as provided 
in the Constitution, within seven years from the date of the submission hereof to 
the States by the Congress. 

States? What restrictions are laid upon the states? How are representatives apportioned among the states? 
How does this amend .\rt. I.. .Sec. 2. Clause 3? What provisions are made about offices? About public debts? 

Article XV. (Note. — This amendment was adopted in 1870. See p. .319.) Repeat the amendment. 

Article XVI. (Note. — This amendment was adopted in 191.3.) What is the effect of this amendment? 

Article XVII. (Note. — This amendment was adopted in 191.3.) Describe the method of choosing senators. 

Article XVIII. (Note. — This amendment was adopted early in 1919.) How is prohibition to be enforced? 



QUESTIONS FOR CLASS USE 



These qiiestiMis arc placed at tlie dose of the work rather than at the foot of each 
page, iu order to encourage a more indei)eijdent une of the book. As far as possible, 
topical recitations should be cncoiiraKcd. When the subject is named, tlic pupil should 
be expected to tell all he knows about it. A little patieucc and practice in this method 
will achieve wonderful results. The foUowiufr pages often present topical questions 
in the hope of (gradually leadiuK the pupil to this system of study. The figures refer 
to the pages of the book. 

INTRODUCTION 

9. Who were the inhabitants of America a few hundred years ago l How numerous 
were they iu our country J How long had they lived hcri' ( What i>coplc arc of the 
same descent as the Indians ? Plow may people have traveled from one (-ontincnt to 
the other I Which Indi.-ins were most nearly civilized ? 

10. What remains of them are found} What Indian n-manis are found in <mr 
country? Where do they occur? What were they designed for? What proof of their 
antiquity? Describe the mound in Adams County, Ohio. What articles were liuri<-d 
in the mounds? Describe th(^ pueblos. Where do they occur '. 

11,12. What is meant by a tribe of Indians? How are the tribes arranged in 
groups? Name five important gr<mps. Where did the Indians of each group live >. 
Give an account of the Iroquois confederacy. Were there any blacksmiths, carpenters, 
etc., among the Indians ? 

13-15. Were the Indians progressive? In what were they skilled ; How were they 
governed? How did they regard labor? Describe the life of tiie women. The In- 
dian's disposition. His ])ower of endurance. His religion. Did he have any idea of 
God ? What is the condition of the Indians to-day ? 

15-17. Who were the Northmen ? What tra<litions about their liaving discovered 
and settled .Vmerica? Arc these storij-s cretlible ? Are there any remains of this 
people now existing? Were their discoveries of any value? At what date does the 
history of tliis country begin? Name the subjects and limits of the six epochs into 
which this history is divided. 

FIRST EPOCH 

19. What was the state of geographical knowledge in Europe iu the fifteenth cen- 
tury? Why coulil not sailors have crossed the ochmu before as w»'ll as then? Why 
were books of travel more abundant then '. M'hj were they so eagerly read ? 

20. By what routes were goods from the East then obtained'.' llow were these 
atlected liy the Turkish conquests? What was the commercial pi-oblcni of that day? 
What did the Piu'tuguese do towartl solving if ? 

21. What was Columbus's idea? What fads strengthened his view ? Why did he 
seek assistance ? Tell something of his life. 

xxviii 



QUESTIONS FOR CLASS USE xxix 

22. Before whom did be lay bis plau < How wan it received J Did the kiii^ treat 
him fairly i To whom did Columbus apply next i How was be regarded V What reply 
was made him ? What did his frieuds do for him ? What offer did Queen Isabella 
make 1 Were her jewels sold 1 

23. What new trouble assailed Columbus? What vessels composed his fleet? Give 
some of the incidents ot the voyage. 

24. Did Columbus waver ? Describe the discovery of land. The lauding. When 
and where was IhisJ What region did Columbus think he had i-eached ! What was 
one result of this ? For what did be search 1 

25. 26. What other lauds did Columbus discover? What of the tii-st settlement of 
Spaniards? Describe the receptiv)u of Columbus on bis return. What w;is his great 
mistake? How many subsequent voyages did be make? When did be first reach the 
mamlaud ? Who had probably reached the mainland before this? 

27, 28. What did Yasco da Gama do ; Cabral ? Vespucius I How was America 
named? Why was it not named for Columbus? Who was John Cabot? What dis- 
coveries did be make? Did his discoveries antedate those of Columbus? Who was 
Sebastiau Cabot? How were the discoveries of the Cabots regarded? Of what value 
were they? What four nations explored the territory of the future United States? 
What portion of the contineut did each explore ? What other nation gained part of 
America i What part I How '. 

29. What was the feeling in Spain? What effect was produced ? What did Cortes 
accomplish ? Pizarro ? Magellan ? Who took possession of the Philippines ? 

30-32. Who was Ponce de Leon ? What city did he found ? Why did he make an 
expedition? What laud did he find? Why did he so name it? What success did he 
meet? What discoverj' did Balboa make? Describe the expedition of Narvaez; its 
fate. What became of the survivors ! Describe the expedition of De Soto. What 
region did he traverse? What river was bis burial place ? Wheu ? What became of 
his companions ; AVben, where, and by whom was the lirst town on the mainland of 
the United States founded? Origin of the name California? What islands in the 
uortheru Pacific did Spanish ships reach? Result ? What did Coronado accomplish? 

33. What did Caljrillo do? What is the oldest town in the western United States? 
AVhen and by whom was it founded ? AVbat was the extent of Spanish jiosses-sious in 
North America in IfiOO? 

34. What was the attitude of the Freucb toward the New World ? For what did 
many mariners search, after Magellan's voyage? Why? When was the northwest 
passage really found ? Of what value is it ? What did Verrazano do ? When and by 
whom was the St. Lawrence River explored? 

.35. Why was Montreal so named ? Who were the Huguenots ? What was Coligny's 
pl.an? Give an account of the first expedition. Of the fate of the colony. WTio led 
the second expedition ? AMicre was the colony established? 

3G. What was its fate ? WTiy did the Spaniards attack it ? Did France make further 
attempts to found colonies in the Southeast ? What French navigator was the next to 
ascend the St. Lawrence? How did he find things at Hochelaga? When, where, and 
by whom was the first agricultural colony established in America I What was Acadia ? 
When, where, and by whom was the first permanent French settlement made in 
Canada ? What Indians did Cbami>lain aid ? 

37,38. A\liat lake did Champlain discover? What battle did he fight? Result? 
Who were the Jesuits? What did they do in America? What was their imrpose? 
What evidences of them remain ? Tell something of their heroism. Who was Father 
Marquette ? Jrvliet ? What did they do ? 



XXX (QUESTIONS FOR CLASS USE 

M. Wlio wan l.a !S;ill«- '. Wliat did he (In f Was t licrc any iiciinaucut result of his 
work < WLat were the Freuch claiius on North America lu l7(Hi '. Coiupare with those 
of Spain. 

40, 41. Wheu did Eughmd l)egin to plaj* au important part in maritime enterprise f 
How was this shown! What did Frohisher attempt to do? With what siueess ? 
What did I^avis do I Describe the career ot Sir Fran<is Drake. Wliat was the '• Span- 
ish main " i Who had sailed around the world before Drake did >. (p. 29). 

42,43. What was the view of 8ir Humphrey (JilliertJ His fate! Give some 
account of Sir Walter Ualeigh. What was a patent ? Describe Kaleigh's first attempt 
to colonize America; his second attempt. How did he succeed? Why was Virginia 
80 named I Tell of the introduction of tobacco into JCngland. The story of Raleigh's 
smoking. 

44. What kept the interest in Amc-riea alive! What did (iosnold do? I'ring? 
What was the L(in<lon Company ! What grant of land was ma<le to it ? When, where, 
and by whom was the first permanent lOiiglish settlement made in the United States? 

4,'). What Spanish attempt hud beim made to plant a colony near this ! What was 
the I'lymouth Company? What land was it to re<eive '. What was a charter J (jive 
some itrovisitms of the cliarter granted to the Louilon and Plymouth companies. 

46. When did the Dutch begin to take an interest in the New World? Who was 
H(Miry Hudson and what did he do ! What claim did the Dutch found on his explora- 
tions ? What name did they give to this region ? Can yon tell why ? (The country of 
the Dutch is called the Netherlands.) What became of Hudson ? 

47. Wliat European settlem(>nt8 were there in IfiOO in what is now the United States? 
Name the settlements that were made soon after. What centuries were characterized 
by explorations? Which one by settlements? State the claims of the Si>anisli, French, 
Eiigli.sh, and Dutch. Did they know the real extent of their claims? Why did the 
claims conflict ? How were they settled ? 



SECOND EPOCH 

49. Name the thirteen English colonies. Were they united during this epoch ? 
When and where was the first iiermaneiit settlement niadi' in Virginia ? What was 
the character of these colonists ? 

ijO, 51. Who saved the colony from ruin; Meiilioii the services of .loliii Smith. 
Some incidents of his life. Tell the story of his capture by Indians, and his escape. 
Why did he make some of his expeditions at this time ! 

.52. What change in the government of the colony was made Ity the second charter? 
Was it ba.sed on the principle of self-government? What change was made in the 
extent of the colony ? What wiis the " Starving Time " I Why di<l this happen? 

53. How was .TamcstowMi saved a second time from ruin ? What change was made 
by the third charter? Tell what you can of Pocahontas. Where and when diil the first 
legislative body in America meet ? Of what did it consist ? 

54. When and by whom was the first written constitution granteil in America? 
How much self-government was allowed by it? State some particuhirs of the pros- 
perity of the colony. What was the chief product ? 

55. How far did the Virginia settlements now extend? How were domestic ties 
formed? When and how was negro slavery introduced? What white servants were 
there? What Indian troubles occurred at this time (1022) ? 

56. How did the Indian troubles end I What change was next made in the govern- 



QUESTIONS FOR CLASS USE xxxi 

lueut of the colony >. Why { What was the Navigatiou Act '! Why was it oppressive '( 
What was the conduct of the majority of the assembly '. 

57. What two parties gradually grew upl Tell the story of Bacon's rebellion. 
Was Bacon a rebel or a patriot I What was the conduct of Berkeley i 

57-59. Describe John Smith's explorations in the North. What was the Plymouth 
Company? What new iiatent did it receive in 1620, and what new name did it take? 
Who were the Pilgrims? Who were the Puritans? What was the difference between 
the Separatists and the other Puritans? Why did the Pilgrims come to this country ? 

60. Where did the Pilgrims land ? When ? Where had they intended to laud ? 
Did they have a right to settle where they did? What was their character? Tell of 
their piety. Of their sufferings. 

61. Why did not the ludiaus disturb them? What Indians visited them ? How did 
Governor Bradford reply to the threat of ( 'anouicus ? Who was Miles Standish ? Tell 
about the scarcity of food. Did tlie plan of working in common succeed! How di<l 
the colony progress? Describe its goverinueiit. What finally became of Plymoutli 
colony ? 

62. Who settled about Massachusetts Bay ? Why did this colouy grow so rapidly ? 
What settlements were included in the Massachusetts B;i.\ colony? Did tlie Puritans 
tolerate other forms of religion ? Why ? 

63. Give an account of tlui difficulty with Roger Williams. What settlement did 
he found? What was the difficulty with Anne Hutchinson? How were the Quakers 
treated? What union of colonies was formed in 1643 ? How long did it last ? 

64. What was the object of this union ? What Indian chiefs befriended Massachu- 
setts and Virginia in their early history? Who was King Philip? Cause of King 
Philip's war? How did the colonists protect themselves? Result of the war? How 
did the Navigation Act affect Massachusetts ? 

65,66. Did the colonists obey it? What change was made in the government of 
Massachusetts? Give some account of the rule of Andros. What form of government 
was finally given to Mftssachusetts ? Give an account of the Salem witchcraft. What 
do you know as to the general belief in witchcraft? What is si "witch"? Tell what 
you can of the settlement of New Hampshire ; of Maine. 

67,68. M'ith what cohmy were these two closely associated? Why were they so 
named? What two nations claimed the Connecticut valley? Give an account of the 
settlements at Windsor, Hartford, and Saybrook. Tell something of the Winthrops, 
father and sou (pp. 6'2, 68). How were the Narragansett Indians kept from Joining the 
Pequots against the whites ? 

69. Tell about the Pequot war. What tliree distinct colonies were formed in Con- 
necticut? What peculiarities iu the government of each? How were they combined 
into one t 

70. Why was the charter of 1662 so highly prized ? Tell about Audros's visit. Who 
founded Providence? When ? What people settled on the island called Rhode Island? 

71. What was the " religious toleration " idea which W^illiams stamped upon his 
colony? How were the two plantations united? For what laws was this colony 
famous? When, where, and by whom was New York first settled? 

72. 73. VVTio were the patroons ? What was the character of the history of New York 
under its four Dutch governors? Who was the ablest of them? How did he settle 
disputes with neighboring colonies? When did the colony surrender to the English? 
Why ? What change was made in Its name ? Whj' ? 

74. Did the English rule satisfy the colonists? Was the English occupation perma- 
nent? For what is Dongau's governorship noted? W'hat was the character of the 



x.xxii QUESTIONS FOR CLASS USE 

En^'lisb rule durinf? the next few years, under Kiuj; James II { Who wan Audros ? 
Who was Captaiu Leieler i Why was he executed I 

75. In what colony was New Jersey formerly embraced? Who first settled it? 
How did the English obtaiu possession of it ? To whom was it granted i Where and 
by whom was the tirst English settlement made? Uow was New Jersey divided? 
Who settled the two parts! How did New Jersey eome to ))»■ joined with New York ? 
To be made a separate province '. 

70. Where and by whom was the first permanent settlement made in Delaware? 
In Pennsylvania? Who was the founder of Pennsylvania? Tell what you can of 
William Penu. Who were the Quakers J Tell some of their peculiarities. How did 
Peun obtaiu a grant of this territory ? Why was it so named ? What plan had Penn 
in mind I 

77. What city did he found ; When? Meaning of its name ! llow do you account 
for its rapid growth ? What was the Great Eaw ; 

78. Give an account of Penu's treaty with the Indians. Wliat was nuant by "the 
three lower counties ou the Delaware"? What was the connection bi-twecn this re- 
gion and Pennsylvania ? AVhen and how did Peun's heirs givt; o\ er their title to Penn- 
sylvania? Wliat was the Mason and Dixon I-ine ? 

79. With what intent did Lonl Baltimore secure a grant of land in .\uierica? 
When was the first settlement made? Why was Marylaiul so named f What advan- 
tage tlid the Maryland charter confer? What was the Toleration Act? How did 
religious toleration vary in the colonics? 

80. 81. Give an account of Clay))orne's rebellion. Of the dilficulties between the 
Cathcdics and the Protestants. What territory was giantctl to Lord C'larendou and 
others? By whom was the Albemarle c(dony settled? The (^artcret colony ! Where 
was it located ? W'liat do you say of the rapidity of its growth ? What beneficial influ- 
ence did the Huguenots have on tlu; colony ? 

82. What was the Grand Model ? How was it unfitted for a new coujitry ? 

83. Give an account of the buccamers ; of IShicklxaid; of Kidd. What of the 
Tuscar(U-a Indians? What were the relations between the Carolina proi>rietiU's and 
the settlers? 

84,85. How were the ditliculties ended? How came Carolina to be divided ! By 
what coincidence is Georgia linked with Washington '. With what intention was this 
colony planned ? Character of the settlers ? Restrictions of the trustees ? Result ? 

86. How many intercolonial wars were there? If you include the .'ipanish war? 
(See p. 88, note.) Duration of King William's war? Cause? Describe the Indian 
attacks upon the colonists. Tell the story of Mrs. Dustin. 

87, 88. WTiat attacks were made by the colonists in return ? Were they successful ? 
What was the result of the war? Give a complete accountof Queen Anne'swar. Tell 
the story of Mrs. Williams. Length of King George's war? Cause? Give an account 
of the Spanish war. 

&9-9L Giv(! an account of the capture of Louisburg. Result of King George's war. 
Length of the French and Judian war. Cause, (iive ::n account of Washington's 
Journey to the French forts. His return. Wluit did the Frcn li do in the spring of 
17i54 ? Tell the story of Washingtcm's first battle. 

93. fiivoau accountof tlie captureof Fort Nc^ccssity. Tell about Franklin's Plan 
of Union. Nan)e the five objective points of this war. 

94, 95. Why were they so obstinately attacked and defended ? Describe the defeat 
of General Braddock. Conduct of Washington, (iive an account of the second expe- 
dition against Fort Duciuesne, Who finally captured the fort ; What city now occu- 



QUESTIONS FOR CLASS USE xxxiii 

pies its site? What was the priucipal cause, of the easy captiu-e of the fort? (See 
p. 97, note.) Give au account of the Cherokee war. What success did the English meet 
in Acadia? What cruel act disgraced their victory? What attempt was made on 
Loirisburg ? 

96. Who finally captured Louisburg? Describe the battle of Lake George. The 
fate of Fort William Henry. 

97. Describe the attack on Fort Ticonderoga by Abercrombie. WLeu were Ticon- 
deroga and Crown Point captured ? Describe the two attempts to captftre Niagara. 
Who forced it to surrender ? When ? Describe the ditticulties which General Wolfe 
met in his attack on Quebec. 

98. 99. How did he overcome them ? Describe tlie battle on the Plains of Abraham. 
Result? What cities were taken from Spain? Why? What were the conditions of 
peace ? 

100, 102. What did Great Britain do with her new territory? Describe Pontiac's 
war. What stratagems did the Indians use ? EHects of the French and Indian war ? 
How did tlie British officers treat the colonial officers ? 

103. Describe tlie people of tlui colonies at the close of the French and Indian war. 
How many kinds of government '. Name and detiue each. Mention some laws. 

104-108. What kinds of local government ! How did the people travel i Tell some- 
tliing about the tirst public conveyance. Name some peculiar customs. Condition tif 
morals in New England. Laws in regard to drinking. Describe the Sunday services 
in a Plymouth nuetinghouse. Who were entitled to the prefix Mr. t What were com- 
mon people called J Tell about New England farm and village life. The houses. The 
kitchen. The food. 

109-111. Describe the "best room." What customs familiar to us are of Dutch 
origin ? Tell something about life in New York. In Pennsylvania. How did the style 
of living in the South differ from that in the North ? Describe a Southern plantation. 

112, 113. What is said of the luxurious living in the South ? State of education in 
New England? Tell something of the support given to schools Of the founding of 
"Yale College. Of the state of education in the Middle colonies. How many colonial 
colleges were there? What was the state of education in the Southern colonies ? Tell 
something about the early newspapers. 

114-117. Wliat iirovisions for public worship? What differences between colonial 
and modern industry ? What were the chief occupations of each section ? What was 
the state of asjriculture? Manufactures? Commerce? Describe the trade of some 
New Englanders. Was money scarce ? Why? How was freight carried? 

THIRD EPOCH 

119, 120. Describe two standing quarrels between the colonies and the British offi 
cers. Two direct causes of the Revolution. What were Writs of Assistance? The 
Stamp Act? Tell the story of James Otis. Of Patrick Henry. 

121-123. What efforts were made to resist the law ? Wh.at eff'ect did they have ? What 
taxes were next laid? What was the Mutiny Act? Why was it passed ? What resistance 
to tlie new taxes w.is made by the colonists? Tell about the Boston Massacre. The 
Boston Tea Party. W'hy was the tea thrown overboard ? What did the British now do? 

124,125. What parties were formed? What action did the colonists take? When 
and where was the First Continental Congress held ? What action did it take ? When 
and where did the first fighting occur? Describe the battles and their effects. Tell 
something of " Old Put." 



xxxiv qup:stioxs for class use 

'26, 127. Tell liow tlie battU- of IJmikcr Hill occunod. DoHciibc it. ICfl['<(>t. Do- 
scribe the death of (icueral Wun-eu. Give some aceoiiiit of j;tli;iii Alien. Wliy weic 
the New llainiisliire (iraiitM ho i-alleil { 

128, 129. Des« rihe the captine of Ticoudeioga. Aetioii of Secoud Coutiueutal Coii- 
firess. What were the Hessians i What was the eouditioii of the army ? What expe- 
dition was undertaken against Canada { Describe the attack upon l^uebec. 

130. How were the British forced to leave Boston I How had they treated the 
Boston people? Describe the attack ou Fort Monltrie. Its eflect. Tell the st«)ry of 
Sergeant Jasper. 

131. When was the Declaration of Independence adopted? How many colonies 
voted for it '. What was the " liberty bell " i 

133-13(>. How did the campai};n near New York occur '. Describe the battle of Long 
Island. How did the Americans escape i What were the i)rison ships '. Tell the story 
of Nathan Hale. What b.iftles occurred while Washington was falling liack t De 
scril)e his letreat thiough New Jersey. Tell the story of Robert Morris. What was 
the condition of the army { Describe the battle of Trenti>u. Of Princeton. Eftectof 
each. Tell the, story of Rahl. Name the battles of 1775 and 1776 in oi-der. 

137. How did the battle of Brandywine occur? What decided it in favor of the 
British? What previous battle did it resemble'? Give some account of Lafayette. 
Describe the battle of Gc^rmantown. Why did the Americans faill 

138-142. How did the campaign iu Pennsylvania close? What attempt was ma<!e 
by the British in the North? Name the battles of this campaign. How was Biir- 
goyne's invasion checked? How was the siege of Fort Schuyler (Stanwix) raised? 
Describes the battle of Bennington. For what incident is it noted ? Describe the first 
V)attle of Baratoga. The second battle. Who was the hero of the fight? Tell some- 
thing of Kosciusko. Of Prcscott and Lee. Of Reed. Tell some incidents of the cam- 
paign. Restilts of the campaign. 

143-146. Describe the winter in Valley Forge. The Conway cabal. Wliat news 
came in the spring? Tell the history of Beiyamin Franklin. What caused the battle 
of Monmouth to happen? Describe the battle. The treason of (ieueral Lee. What 
campaign was now planned l)y the aid of the French? How did it turn out? Tell 
about the Wyoming settlement. Describe the Wyoming massacre. Name the battles 
of 1777 and 1778 iu order. 

147-149. What success did the Bi-itish have in the South? Describe the attack on 
Havanuah. Who were killed t Tell something of Count Pulaski. What characterized 
the campaign in the North? Tell the story of General Putnam. Describe the capture 
of Stony Point. General Sullivan's expedition. Clark's con(|uest of the West. The 
naval successes. The famous victory of Paul Jones. 

1.50-1.53. What city was captured in 1780? What result followed? Describe the 
battle of Camden. Tell something of the famous jiartisan warfare. Some leaders. 
Efi"ect. Battle of Kings Mountain. Tell something of the depreciation of the Conti- 
nental money. 

154-156. What mutiny occurred? Tell the story of Arnold's treason. Of Andri'-'s 
capture and fate. Of Arnold's escape and reward. In what estimatien was he held? 
What was the condition of the army in the South in 1781 ? Who now took c«>mmand i 
Describe the battle of ( owpens. Tell an anecdote of Tarleton. 

1.57. Describe Greene's celebrated retreat. How many times did the rain save him ? 
Illustrate th(^ patriotism of the women. By what two battles was the contest in the 
South closed? Who were victorious? Describe the character of Geiu>ral (Jreene. 

158, 159. What did Cornwallis do after the failure of his Southern campaign '? Why 



QUESTIONS FOR CLASS USE xxxv 

did lie retire to Yorktown I Wliat plan did Wasbiiigtou uow adopt l Descrilif tlie sie^e 
of Yorktowu. The surrender. Tlie ettect. Ou what plimdering tours did Aruold go! 
Story told of Nelsou i Name the priueipal liattles of 1779-1781 iu ordei-. 

160-163. Was all peril to our liberties uow over I What was the coudition of the 
country I What base ofler was made to Washington I When was the treaty of peace 
signed ? What were the i-esults f Which States claimed lands west of the Appalachi- 
ans i. AVhy I What was finally done with the land north of the Ohio River i Tell some- 
thing of the weakness of the government. 

164. Describe Shays's rebellion. What need was felt? How was it met! When 
was the Constitution framed '. Tell some of the compromises iu its formation. Wliat 
parties arose! How was tlie Constitution ratified! How many States were neces- 
sary '. Describe the first presidential election. 

1G5-167. When did the new government go into operation ! Into wliat tlirer 
branches is it divided! Of what does each consist ! Tell about th(5 State coustitu- 
tions. Local government. 

FOURTH EPOCH 

169-174. Who was the first President of the United States I When and where was 
he inaugurated ! Give some account of his life and character. What difficulties beset 
the government! Of whom did the first cabinet consist! What financial measures 
were adopted ! By whose advice i Name the changes in the national capital. A 
great invention made at this time. Give an account of the whisky rebellion. Of the 
Indian war in the Northwest. How many States in the Union at the end of Washing- 
ton's administration ! What difficulty arose with Great Britaiu ! How was it settled ! 
How was the treaty received in this country ! What treaty was made with Spain ! 
Algiers ! What was the popular feeling toward France ! Why was Genet recalled ! 
What parties now arose ! Who were the leaders of each ? What were their views ! 

175, 176. Who was elected second President ! Vice President ? Why ! Tell some- 
thing of Adams's life. What were the Alien and Sedition Laws? Why were they 
passed I How were they received i Describe the French difficulty during this admin- 
istration. How was it terminated ? AVTiat reply did Pinckncy make to the base ofl'er 
of the French Directory! What was the state of party feeling? Who was elected 
President in 1800! How? 'S\Tiat was the iiiiportant event of Jefferson's administra- 
tion ? Tell something of Jefferson's life and character. 

178-183. How was the Louisiana purchase made? Describe the Lewis and Clark 
expedition. The Twelfth Amendment. Tell how Hamilton was killed. What became 
of Burr? Tell something of Fulton's iiiventiou. Of the war with Tripoli. Of Lieu- 
tenant Decatur's exploit. Of the difficulty with Great Britain and France. What was 
the Embargo Act? (The enenues of this law, spelling the name backward, tenned it 
the O grab me Act.) What was the issue of the next political' campaign ? Who was 
elected President in 1808 ? Give an account of Madis(ra's life and character. 

184. Give an account of the battle of Tippecanoe. Effect of this Indian war. State 
how the breach with Great Britain widened. Tell about the President and Little Belt. 
When was war declared? 

185-187. How long did the war last? What was the opening event of the war of 
1812? Describe the surrender of Detroit. The battle of Queenstown Heights. The 
victory of the Conslifution. Of the Wasp. How many prizes were captured by priva- 
teers? What are privateers? Effect of these victories! Plan of the campaign of 
the year 1813? 



■^xvi QUESTIONS FOR CLASS USE 

188-iai. Wliat did the armies of (he ('outer and Xoitli do in 1813? Describe the three 
attacks made by Proctor. Perry's victory ou Lake Krie. What issues depended on 
this ti^ht '. Describe the batth' of the Thames. What celebrated Indian was killed '. 
What was the c^ftVet of these victories? Describe the capture of tlie i'liescipatke. 
Wliat were Lawrence's dyin^ words '. Who used them in battle I What Indian ditli- 
culties occurred i Who ended them \ How ? What story is told of Jackson I What 
ravages were comuiitted by Admiral Cockburu i Why was New England spared J 

192,193. Give an account <>t the campaign of 181-t near Niagara River. Who were 
the American leaders >. What story is told of Colouel Miller I Wliat important battle 
took place in New Yoi-k State '. Describe it. Deseribe the ravages on the Atlantic 
coast. Attack on Wasliingtou. OnKaltimore. Kcsult of these events. What was tlif 
Hartford Convention f 

194,19.'). Why was the battle of New Orleans unnecessary? Deseribe this battle. 
How did it happen that raw militia defeated Hritish vet(U-ans ? What were the results 
of this war? Effect upon new States? Effect upon tlie Federal party? Who was 
elected President in 181(1 >. What small war was fought in 181.') ? What can you say of 
the national bank (Bank of the United States) ; 

196-200. Give some account of Monroe's life and character. Wliat was the charac- 
teristic of his administration >. Give the history of the ITnited States flag. What was 
the Missouri Comi)romise ? Cause of it >. How many slave States and how many free 
States were there in 1822! Give an account of lyafayette's visit. How were our 
boundaries changed by treaties? What famous doctrines was advanced by Monroe? 
Why ? 

201. Describe the election of 1824. Result? Whut political changes now took 
place ; Principles of each party ? CharajMons of each party J Which party absorlied 
most of the old Federalists? (Jive some account of the life and character of John 
Quincy Adams. Of his administration. 

202,203. How was the protective taritf received ! What new means of travel and 
transportation were now inti'oduced >. Siguiticance '. Who was elected President in 
1828 ? Describe the life and character of Jackson. 

20.')-208. What principle did Jackson introduce! What was the nullification ordi- 
nance! How did Jackson ai't ! How did Clay pacify ! What celebrated debate took 
place! What is said of Calhoun? Of Clay's patriotism? What action did Jackson 
take concerning the Unitecl States bank! Its ctfect ! How did si)eculation become 
rife ! What can you say of the Antimasouic pai'ty ? What policy was adopted t()ward 
the Indians of the middle West ? Give an account of the Rlack Hawk war. The 
Seminole war. Osceola. How many new States were admitted! What difliculty 
occurred with France! How was it settled? Who was elected President in 183fi? 
Give an account of his life. 

209, 210. Describe the crisis of 1837. What was its effect on trade ! Wliat was Van 
Buren's Subtreasury Bill ! Tell the story of the steamer farolhir. Who was elected 
Pri'sident in 1840 ! Who was his opponent ! Give an account of the life and character 
of Ilarri.son. What was the cause of his suddi'u di'ath ! 

211-214. Who was the next President ! Wliat trouble with his party ? What of the 
United States bank ? Give an account of Dori-'s rebellion. Of the anti-rent ditliculties. 
Of the invention of the magnetic telegi'ai)h. Of the Momions. Of the origin and 
early history of this sect. How many States in the Union at the close of this term ! 
Give an account of the northeast boundary r|uestion. Of the annexation of Texas. 
^^^ly was this measure warmly opposed ? Who were the presidential candidates in 
1844 ? Give an account of Clay. Who was elected I 



QUESTIONS FOR CLASS USE xxxvii 

215-222. Give an account of the life of Polk. What war now broke out ? How long 
did it hist } Give an at-couiit of Taylor's campaign on the Rio Gi-aude. The capture 
of Monterey. The battle of Buena Vista. What stories are told of Taylor ! Give an 
account of Kearny's expedition. Of Douiphau's. Describe the conquest of Culifornia. 
The capture of Vera Cruz. The battle of Cerro Gordo. What city now surrcudered i 
Describe the battles before Mexico. The result. The terms of peace. How was the 
northwest boundary settled I What was the W ilniot proviso ? Give an account of the 
discovery of gold in Caliiornia. Kesult. How m;iny States at the end of this term ? 
Name the slave States. The free States. Tell about the parties and candidates in the 
election of 1848. Who was elected President '. 

223-225. Give an account of Taylor's life and character. How long was he Presi- 
dent '. Who succeeded him ! What questions agitated the people I Why were these 
now awakened ; What was the effect ; What course did Clay take '. Webster ! Give 
some account of Webster. What was the Compromise of 1850 ? Describe each meas- 
ure included in it. Give an account of the filibusters of 1851. Of the political parties, 
in 1852. Who was elected President ! Give an account of the life of Pierce. Of the 
Kansas-Nebraska lull. What is squatter sovereignty ! Tell how the public lauds have 
threatened the peace of the country. 

228, 229. Describe the contest in Kansas. Brooks's assault on Sumner. The Gads- 
den purchase. The treaty with Jai)an. What political parties now arose ! Why i 

230-235. Who was elected President in 185G ? Give some account of Buchanan's life. 
Of the Dred Scott decision. How was this regarded in the North and in the South ? 
Why was the Fugitive Slave Law obnoxious i What were Personal Liberty bills ! 
The Underground Railroad J Vncle Tom's Cabin 1 Give an account of the John Brown 
affair. How many slave States and how many free States at the enl of this term ? 
What was the question of the elections in 1860? Who were nominated for the presi- 
dency? Who was elected J Give an account of the secession of the South. When 
and where was the Confederate government formed ? Who were elected President 
and Vice President of it '. Give some nccouut of Davis's life. What action was tak<Mi 
by the South i What was the condition of the country ! Give an account of the grad- 
ual growth of the secession movement. Was war necessary l What was the condition 
of affairs at Fort Sumter ? For what did the nation wait ! 

236-2t3. Tell about the obliteration of rank in this epoch. The improvement in the 
condition of laborers. Of debtors. Of schools. How did the Revolution affect f)ur 
industries? The war of 1812 ? Mention some inventions of this time. Why did immi- 
grants conje here ? What changes look place in agriculture ? Mining? Manufactur- 
ing? Transportation? Commerce? 

No questions are given upon the new States admitted to the Union during this 
epoch, as each class will naturally study chiefly that which concerns its own State, 
and will wish to add to the facts given here those obtained from other sources. 

FIFTH EPOCH 

249-257. Give an account of Lincoln's life and character. Of the condition of the 
country. When was the first gun of the Civil War fired ? Give an account of the cap- 
ture of Fort Sumter. Effects ? What action did the North take >. The South ? When 
and where was the first blood shed ? How .did the war in Virginia open? How was 
Fort Monroe protected from capture? Give aix account of the Big Bethel affair. Of 
the war in western Virginia. How and when did the bfittlc of Bull Run take idace ? 
Describe it. How did Jackson receive the name of " Stonewall" ? What decided the 



xxxviii QUESTIONS FOK CLASS USE 

issue of the battle '. EflFect ? Who now took comuiatid of the Uuion troops ? Describe 
the battle at Balls Bliitf. 

258-260. Give au account of the war in Missouri. What was tlic condition of affairs 
in the border States ; What step did Davis take; { Lincoln ; What naval expeditions 
were made ! Describe the Trcnl affair. Give a general review of the first year of the 
war. Describe the preservation of Fort Pickens. What was the plan of the campaign 
for 1862 i The situation in the West i 

261-266. Where was the first attack made in the West '. Describe the capture of Fort 
Henry. Of Fort Donelson. What nu-ssage did Grant send? What was the effect of 
these victories '. What was the ne.xt movement ! Describe the battle of Pea Ridge. 
Of Shiloh, or Pittsburg Landing. How was Corinth captured i Deseritie the taking of 
Island No. 10. Effects of this campaign '. What line was now held by the Union army '. 
Describe Bragg's expedition. Was it sucees.<ful >. Describe the battles of luka and 
Corinth. Of Murfreesboro. Effect { AVTiat was Grant's plan for an expedition again.'»t 
Vicksburg ! Was it successful >. What event closed this Mississippi campaign ! De- 
scribe the capture of New Orleans by Farragut. 

267-270. Describe Burnsidc's expedition against Roanoke Island. What was the 
importance of Roanoke Island ; What else was accomplished on the coast ; DescriJje 
the battle between the Motiilor and the ilerrlmae. What was the result ; Wliat was 
the objective point in the East! What campaign was undertaken; Wlm was the 
commanding genei-al '. 

271-27.'>. Describe the siege of Yorktowii. The battle of AVillhiinsburg. What 
became of the Mrrrimncl How did the Confederates thwart General MeClellan's 
plan ! Give an account of Jackson in the Shenandoah valley. Wh-it was the effect of 
this movement ? What story is told of .Taek.scm '. Describe the bsittle of Fair Oaks. 
Who now took direct command of the Confederate army I Give some account of Lee. 
How was the Union advance on Richmond checked '. What plan did MeClellan form '. 
Describe the Seven Days' battles and the retreat. What was the effect of this cam- 
paign ? 

276-279. Why (lid Lee now march uortli '. Wli«» 1i;h1 connnaiMl nf the Union army 
before Washington '. Describe Lee's campaign against INipe. Effect ! What plan did 
Lee now adopt? I^escribe MeClellan's niovemenis in pursuit. On what expedition 
was .Taekson sent I Describe the battle of Antietam. Its effect. The battle of Fred- 
ericksburg. Give a review of the second year of the wai-. What Indian conflict 
occurred in the West! What M-as the situation at the beiiinning of the year 1863! 
What was the Emancipation Prochunatiou '. 

280-284. What nu)venu'iit did Grant make against Vicksl)urg; Describe this cam- 
jiaign. What other stronghohl on the river was captured .' Effect i Describe the 
movements of Rosecrans in Tennessee and tieorgia. General Morgan's raid. The 
battle of Chickamauga. By what event can you re<'olleet it? Describe the situation 
at Chattanooga. The battle of Lookout Mountain. Of Missionary Ridse. Its effect. 
The siege of Knoxville. 

285-289. Describe the battle rd" Chancellorsville. Lee's second invasion of the 
North. The battle of Getty.sburg. Its.ffect. The attack on Fort Sumter. What can 
you say concerning the negro troops >. (iive a gen»'ral review of the third year of the 
war. 

290-294. State the situation at the beju'inniug of the year 1864. Tell about the Red 
River expedition. Tin- captuie of Foit Pillow. What was (irant's plan >. Tell some- 
lliiug of Sherman and Johnston. Describe Johnston's plan of defense. How did 
Sherman drive him back '. Name the ))attlcs that occurred. Who succeeded Johnston 



QUESTIONS FOR CLASS USE xxxix 

in comuiand I What followed I How did Sherman capture Atlanta I What was the 
effect 'i What did Hood now do ! Sherman ? Describe the battle of Nashville. What 
was the effect '. DeBcril)e Sherman's march to the sea. What Wiis the effect I 

295-299. Describe the battle of the Wilderness. By what peculiarity was it distin- 
guished? What was the result ? What battle followed ; Describe it. What was the 
next battle! Describe it. What famous dispatcli did (iraut seud f What was Grant's 
next movement l What was the effect of tliis campaign '. Describe the three coopera- 
tive expeditions. The mine explosion. The attack on the Weldon railroad. Why did 
Lee send Early into the Shenandoah valley ! Describe Early's raid. What Union gen- 
eral was now sent to tliis region ! Describe Sheridan's campaign. His devastation of 
the country. His ride from Winchester. What was the effect of his campaign '. What 
can you say of the effectiveness of the blockade ! Of the V)lockade runners >. 

300-303. Give an account of the Confederate cruisers. Of the battle between the 
Alabama and the Kearsurge. The expedition against Mobile Bay. The expeditions 
against Fort Fisher. TheSanitary and Cliristiau Commissions. Political affairs. Who 
was elected President l Give a review of the fourth year of the war. 

304-309. Describe the situation at the opening of the year 1865. Describe Shei-man's 
march through the Caroliuas. What was the resiUt ; What was the situittiou iit Rich- 
mond J Describe the attack on Fort Stednuiu. Wliy was it made? Descril)c the battle 
of Five Forks. The capture of Petersburg and Richmond. Tlic pursuit of I.ec. Terms 
of the surrender. Effect! What was the fate of Davis! Results of the war ! The 
coat of the war! Tell al>out tlie assassination of Lincoln. What States were added 
during this epoch ! How ujany were then in the Union ? 

SIXTH EPOCH 

.311-31G. What c;in you say of the nation's progress in this epoch ! What problems 
did it fac(^ ! AVho became President on the death of Lincoln ! Give an necouut of his 
life. What was done with the army ! What is the Grand Army of the Republic! 
What do you mean by " reconstruction " ! What was the reconstruction policy of John- 
son ! What is the Thirteentli Amendment ! What was the reconstruction policy of 
Congress! How were the seceded States finally readmitted to their former positions 
in the Union! Why was Jolinson impeached! What was the result! What is the 
Fourteenth Amendment! Effect! Give an account of the French interference in 
Mexico. How did it end ! Tell about the laying of the Atlantic cnble. What new ter- 
ritory was added to the United States ! How ! 

317-323. AVho were the presidential candidates in 1808 ! Who was elected ! Give 
an account of his life. Of the Pacific railroads and their value to the country. What 
is the Fifteenth Amendment! What great fires happened in 1871 and 1872! Mli.it 
trouble occurred the next year ! What two Indian wars were fought in this a<biiinis- 
tration! Describe each. Describe the Centenninl Exhibition. How many States in 
1876 ! What difficulties with Great Britain, and how were they .settled ! Describe the 
election of 1872. Give some account of Greeley. Who were nominated for the presi- 
dency in 1876 ! What questions were before the country ! 

324, 325. What was the Joint Electoral Commissiou ! Who was elected ! What 
was the Southern policy of President Hayes ! Describe the railroad strike of 1877. 
Significance ! What was the Bland Silver Bill ! What is " free coinage " ! When was 
specie payment of greenbacks resumed! Who were the presidential candidates in 
1880! Who was elected ! 

326,327. Describe the life and death of Garfield. Nauje the important events of 



xl QUESTIONS FOR CLASS USE 

Prcsideut Arthur's aduiinistratiou. What was the ditliciilty in excludiiij; tlie Chinese? 
Wliat is meant by " civil service reform" i 

328-330. Who were the presidential nominees in 1884 i Who was elected '. Sifruiti- 
eance? What were tlie principal events in the first administration of President 
Cleveland I What two acts liad to do with the i^esidency '. Describe tlieui. What is 
the Interstate Commerce Commission ! Wliat question was prominent in the election 
of 1888 i Who were the candidates >. Who was elected ; 

331-333. What were the principal events in President Harrison's administration? 
Tell about the Pan-American Congress. Ballot reform. Hosv many .states were there 
in 1892 ? Describe the presidential election of that year. Who was elected ; 

336-33S. What was the Columbian Exposition ; Tell something about it. What 
did Congress do about silver in 1893 ? Why '. What laws were i»as8ed the next year '. 
Describe three other important events of Cleveland's second administration. What 
can you tell of the Hawaiian Islands '. Describe the election of 189C.. What was the 
issue ; Who was elected President '. 

339-346. Tell something of his life. What was done by the extra session of ( Ongress 
in IH'JT >. What was the etfect of the Gold Standard Act of 1000 ! What was the (ialves- 
ton disaster ! What were the causes of the war with Spain ; When did it begin >. 
What were the chief naval battles, and the result of each ; The chief operations on 
laud f What were the results of the war '. 

347-353. What islands and island groups were acquired by the United States in 
1898, 1899, and 1900 ! Give a brief history of each. What was done with Cuba^ What 
was done in China in 1900 ? Describe the election of 1900. The death of McKiuley. 

353-367. Mention some of the reasons for the great industrial development of the 
United States. What is a trust '. A trade union >. Mention some details of the devel- 
opment of agriculture. Herding. Luinl)ering. Mining. Mamifactures. What great 
chang(! took place in the South '. Mention some details in the development of trans- 
portation. Commerce. Menticm the diflferent steps in the territorial development of 
the counti'y. What can you say of the growth in population '. Give a brief account of 
the development of the post ottice. Education. Literature. What was the Federalist >. 

yfi9-ST4. Mention the chief events of Roosevelt's administration. How did the 
United States come to dig the Panama Canal? What is the Department of Com- 
merce and Labor? What disaster befell San Francisco? What important laws were 
passed in TJOt!? Who was elected President in 19os? 

:?75-;i77. Tell something of his life. What amendments were proposed i luring 
Taft's administration? Mention other important events of this time. Who was 
elected President in 1912 ? 

377-400. What constitutiimal amendments were adopted during Wilson's admin- 
istration ? What important acts were passed by Congress? WTiat islands were pur- 
(Oiased? What were the causes of the Great War? Howwas it carried on ? How 
was the United States forced into it? AVhat preparations were made in America? 
What was done by our navy ? By our army ? What was the result ? 



HISTORICAL RECREATIONS 

1. What general rushed into battle without orders and won it I 

2. What battles have resulted In the destruction or surrender of an entire army? 

3. What trees are celebrated in our history ! 

4. How many boundary disputes has the United States had ( 

5. In what battle did Washington bitterly rebuke the commandiui; general, and him- 

self rally the troops to battle >. 

6. What three ex-Presidents died on the 4th of July i 

7. What cities have undergone a siege '. 

8. Contrast the characters of Washington and Jefferson. 

9. By whom, and on what occasion, were the words used, " Millions for defense, hut 

not one cent for tribute " I 

10. (iive the coincidences in the lives of the three great statesmen— Webster, Clay, 

and Calhoun. 

11. How did a half-witted boy once save a fort from capture ? 
Vi. Name the retreats famous in our history. 

in. When did a fog save our army '. 

14. When did a stone house largely decide a battle ? A stone wall ! 

15. What general was captured through his carelessness, and exelianged for another 

taken iu a similar way ! 

16. What battles have been decided by an attack in the rear I 

17. Who said, " I would rather be right than President" I 

18. Who would have succeeded Millard Fillmore as President if he had died in oltiee ; 

Andrew Jolmson '. Theodore Roosevelt '. 

19. Name the events in our history which seem to you providential. 
•20. What general died at the moment of victory '. 

21. Name some defeats which had all the effect of victories. 

22. Of what general was this said to be always true '. 

23. When was the Mississippi River the western boundary of the United Rlates >. 

24. What territory has the United States acquired by purchase ! By conquest ! By 

annexation '. 
2.5. What Vice Presidents were afterwards elected Presidents J 

26. What navigator greatly shortened the voyage across the Atlantic ? 

27. What tea party is celebrated in our history ! 

28. How many attacks have been made on Quebec '. 

29. In what way did Washington travel from Philadelphia to Bo.ston ? 

30. Why were the river St. Lawrence, Florida, St. Augustine, etc., so named ? 

31. What naval commander captured his antagonist as his own vessel was sinking ? 

32. How many expeditions have been made into Canada ? 

33. What do the French names in the Mississippi valley indicate ? 

34. What do the names New York, New England, New Hampshire, Gt'orgia, Carolina, 

etc., indicate ? 

35. What Presidents were assassinated ! What other ones flied in office '. 

xli 



xlii HISTORICAL RECREATIONS 

36. When bas the question of the public lauds threatened the Union '. 

37. Who, in a Trail canoe, on a stormy nijjlit, visited an Indian wigwam to save the 

lives of his enemies ! 

38. How many times has Fort Ticonderoga been captured ? 

39. Why were Davis Strait, Haflin Hay, Hudson Riv<'r, etc., so named ! 

40. What do tile names Ban Sah a<h>r, Santa Cruz, Trinidad, etc., indicate ? 

41. In wliat battles had the opposing generals formed the s.ame plan ; 

42. What fatlier anil son were Presidents ; What giandfather and grandson ! 

43. Who tired tlie first gun in the French and Indian War} 

44. How many rebellions liave occurred in our history ? 

45. Who was i-alled the "(ireat Pacificator" '. Why ; 
4C. What was nullification >. 

47. How inan.v of our Presidents have b.een military nien ? 

48. Why did not Webster and Clay become Presidents '. 

4'.). Who was " Old Rough and Ready " I Tlie " 8age of Monticello" ! 

150. What noted events occurred on April 10 >. 

.51. In wliich admiiii.stration was the largest number of States admitted ? 

52. In wliich administrations was none admitted >. 

53. By wlioiii and under what circumstances was the expression used, "Give me 

liberty or give me death " { 

54. Give some familiar names that have been applied to American statesmen. 

55. Name our six great wars. How long did each last ! 

.56. State the cause of each of these wars. Thc^ results of each. 

57. Name the prominent commanders who nc(|uired celebrity in each. 

.58. What fort was carried by a midnight assault '. 

59. What general escaped by riding down a steep precipice? 

60. Who drafted the Declaration of Indeiiendeuce ? 

61. Name the Presidents in clironoU)gical order. 

62. Who were the " bachelor Presidents" ; 

63. State to what party each President belonged. 

64. How many of our Presidents were poor boys I 

65. What party adopted the views of the old Federalists on the United States Bank? 

66. How many Presidents li.ave served two terms ! 

67. What battles were fought after peace had been declared ! 

68. (Contrast .Tohn Quiiicy Adams and Andrew Jackson. 

69. What is the ob.jcct of a strike I Of a lockout f Describe several noted sirikes. 

70. What are the injuries that may be caused by strikes f The possible benefits t 

71. On what mountains have battles liecn fought '. 

72. Who used the expression, " We have met the enemy, and they are ours" ; 

73. Whose flying words were, " Don't give u)) the ship" ; 

74. When w.is a general blown up by a magazine, m the moment of victory? 

75. What Indian chiefs formed leagues against the whites I 

76. What celebrated statesman was killed in a duel f 

77. What States were named from mountain ranges ! From rivers ! 

78. Was Washington ever wounded in battle ? 

79. When were postage stami>s invented ? 

80. In what battle did Washington show the most brilliant generalship? 

81. What officer lost his life because he neglected to open a note ! 

82. What army retreated at the moment of victory because'the fog was so dense that 

it did not see how successful it was? 



HISTORICAL RECREATIONS xliii 

83. Name some celebrated foreigners who have fought for us. 

84. What rendered Valley Forge memorable f 

85. How did William Henry Harrison gain his i)0i)ularity ! Zachary Taylor i 

86. Give some account of the United States Bauk. 

87. In what war was Lincoln a captain and Davis a lieutenant '. 

88. What colonel, when asked if be could take a battery, replied, "I'll try, sir" ? 

89. What town and army were surrendered without tiring a shot ! 

90. For how many years was the Revolutionary War carried on mainly in the North J 

In the South ! 

91. Who was Poor Richard i 

92. Who were the Green Mountain Boys? 

93. What colony was founded as a home for the poor? 

9-t. What persecuted people settled the diflereut colonies ? 

95. What colonies are named after a king or a queen >. 

96. What religious toleration was granted in the diflferent colonies? 

97. Which colonies early enjoyed the greatest liberty ? 

98. What colony took the Bible as its guide ? 

99. In what battle was the left wing, when separated from the main body by a river, 

attacked by an overwhelming force of the enemy ? 

100. In what battle did Itoth generals mass their strength on the left wing, expecting to 

crush the enemy's right >. 

101. How many invasions of the North did Lee make ? 

102. What victories induced hun to attempt each of these invasions ? 

103. By what battle was each invasion checked ? 

104. For how many years has the United States been involved in war ? 

105. What object did Penn, Lord Baltimore, and Oglethorpe each have in founding a 

colony in the New World ? 

106. WTiat President was impeached ? 

107. What ex- Vice President was tried for treason ? 

108. Wliat President vetoed the measures of the party that elected him f 

109. Of what statesman was it said that " he was in the public service fifty years, and 

never attempted to deceive his countrymen " ? 

110. From what States have Presidents been elected ! 

111. Give the number and names from each State. 

112. What battle did General Gates win ? Wliat battle did he lose? 

113. What battles did Washington win ? What battles did he lose I 

114. What President-elect came to Washington secretly t 

115. Give a brief history of the slavery question. 

116. When were negro slaves introduced into this country ? 

117. Name the generals who commanded the Army of the Potomac. 

118. Name the principal battles fought by McClellan, Rosecrans, Brags, Lee. Hooker, 

Sheridan, Grant, Sherman, Beauregard, Meade, Pope, Taylor, Scott, Thomas. 

119. Describe the " March to the Sea." 

120. WTiattwo battles were fought in the "Wilderness" J 

121. WTiat was the Missouri Compromise ? The Compromise of 1850 ? 

122. What is " squatter sovereignty" ? Who was its author? 

123. Of whom was it said that "he touched the dead corpse of public credit, and it 

sprang upon its feet " ? 

124. What were the Alien and Sedition Laws ? 

125. Who was the Old Man Eloquent ? 



xliv HISTORICAL RECREATIONS 

12fi. When was th«^ first railroad eoiistructed ( Tbe first Kiiccessful steauiboal '. The 

first, iiiaKiictic tclcfrrauh '. The first sewinjr niai-hiii*' '. 
1'27. When was the Erie Canal opened? The first Facitic Hailroad ; 

128. Wliat President iutrodnccd " rotation in oflHee" >. 

129. Why, in the, Missouri Couiproiuise, was 36° 30' taken as tlie boundary between 

slave and tree territory I 
1.30. What is the Monroe Doetrine ! 
i;tl. Who was the inventor of the eotton gin ? 
1;J2. What is a pi-otective tariflf ! 
i:«. What is tree coinajie ; 
134. To what party did Henry Clay bch)njr ; J. (^. .Adams ; Thunias .Fctterson ; John 

C. Calhoun! Andrew Jaekson i Daniel Webstei-; Stephen .\. Douj^las ? 

Alexander Hamilton ( George Washington '. 
\.ir>. What President had not voted for forty years ! 
i:((j. Wliat two distinguished generals of the same name served in tlif Confederate 

Army? Name the battles fought by each. 

137. What was the Dred Scot t decision >. 

138. What was the Kansas-Nebraska Pill ; 

139. Give an account of the principal parties which have arisen since the Constitu 

tion.al Convention of 1787. 
UO. Who were the Silver Grays ! The Hunkers; Th.- Barn-iiurners ! The Woolly- 
heads; The I>ocofoeos ; The Free-soilei's ; The Know-nothings; The Anti- 
I'cnters ; The Unionists ; The Stalwarts . The Mugwumps ; 

141. Give au account of the <litferent attempts to lay the first Atlantic^ cable. 

142. Give a history of the dithculty between President Johnson and Congress. 

143. ^\^lat nations settled the different States ; 

114. How many ameTiduients have been made to the Constitution ! 
14."). What was the Hartford Convention J 
14G. What is meant by " State riirlits " ; 

147. What was the Se<'retary of State formcilv .ailed ; 

148. Tell some stories illustratiTig the patriotism of the women of tlie l\e\(iliition. 

149. <tive an account of the jiublic lands. 

150. What State was admitted to the Union first aftei' the original thirteen ; 
l.'jl. Who are the iMoi-mons ; 

1.52. Tor what is Ethan Allen noted ; 

153. What battles have been fought in Virginia ; South Carolina ; Louisiana t New 

York? Massachusetts? New Jersey ; Maryland; Pi-nnsylvania ; Georgia; 

Michigan ; Tennessee 1 
l.")4. What was the Fugitive Slave Law ; 
15."). For what is John Brown noted ; 

156. Give an account of Farragut's most celebrated exploit. 

157. Why was "Stonewall" Jaekson so called ; 

I.IS. What was the chief event of JeflFersou's administration ; Jackson's ; Monroe's ! 

159. What treaties are celebrated in our history ; 

160. What President was once a tailor's apprentice ? 

161. What was the object of the " American party" ; 

162. What was the (Jadsden purchase ; 

163. Name the various difiiculties whieli havi- arisen with (;r<:il Pritain. 

164. What was the Wilmot Proviso ; 

165. Who was President in 1812, 1832. 1m46. 1h.-){), I8(ic, ls79, 1898 : 



HISTORICAL RECREATIONS xlv 

166. Describe the opeiatiuus of the Coiifeaeiate eriUHi rs duiiug the Civil War. Of tlie 

tolockade ruuueis. 

167. \Vliat distinguished generals have been unsuccessful candidates for the Presi- 

dency i Successful candidates ; 

168. WTiy did the French In CanadUr extend their explorations westward to the Missis- 

sippi rather than southwanl into New York ? 

169. Wbat was the Trent affair I 

170. Name and describe some important naval engagements. 

171. In what battle did the defeated general leave his wooden leg? 

172. What was the " O grab me Act " '. 

173. Who first used the exiiression, " To the victors belong the spoils " l 

174. What is " Civil Service Reform " ! 

17". What right did the English and Hpuuish have to occupy this continent J 

176. Why is this country English ratlier than French ! 

177. What are " patroon estates" >. 

178. What was the difference betweeu the Pilgrims and the other Puritans ; 

179. Has a State any right to coin money J 

180. Ought Andre to have been executed * 

181. What President in his inaugural called attention to the fact that he was the first 

President bom after the Revolution ; 

182. Who is the author of the Thirl ij Years' View I 

183. What portion of the United States favored the annexation of Texas f 

184. Who first used the expression, " A government of the people, by the people, and 

for the people " I 

185. What was the town meeting of the early New England times I 

186. Which Presidents were chosen by the House of Representatives I 

187. Which Presidents were college graduates ? 

188. How many States voted for Washington the first time as President ! 

189. What effect did the invention of the cotton gin have on slavery ; 

190. What four Italians were prominent in American discoveries >. 

191. What was the Society of the Cincinnati f 

192. What was the State of Franklin « 

193. What war was waging in Europe during our King William's AV'ar? During the 

French and Indian War ? 

194. Why diil the Iroqu!)is generally favor the English rather than the French ; 

195. How did the English treatment of the Indians compare with the French ! 

196. For how many years was New York the capital of the United States I 

197. What was the object of the Electoral College « 

198. How were the early Presidents nominated for office ? 

199. What constitutes citizenship in the United States i 

200. Why was not Washington inaugurated until April 30? 

201. What is the longest period during which any one party has remained in power in 

the United States ? 

202. What was the meaning of the campaign cry " Fifty-four forty, or flght " >. 

203. What was the " Western Reserve " '. 

204. 'WTiich State has supplied the grciitest number of Vice Presidents ! 

205. Have the President and the Vice President always belonged to tlie same party? 

206. How could one elector have made Burr President instead of .Tefferson ( 

207. In what other case could oiu; man have changed the result of a presidential 

election ? 



xlvi 



TABLE OF STATES 






T3 5i i 



& o 

^ 1 



i2 

■gJS 



C 3 

s c 
WW 

££« 
c c « 









S S is 









l-i'NI 












= = 0.0^ 5' 



^H 



o '■■ - - o' 



Z _: Z -; 



^r^ ^hoo o o c^ 



0-h:o C5 — ■ 



"t t^O 



- ;cwo 



O K5 



!70 -< 



■-_rooc — 



00 00 :c >o c 



« TO -" 



30 X CI w 



row — 



2 ,-t 



cjo ooco 






rr X O 0<0'J< "5 "5 X 
<0 O) <M Tj-OiO to O © 



-r t -i>-*« 



Pa 



a! u < 

a o 



?^S 



>.S 



« S £ 

I tl 
Sz> 



03 14 i< (B t» 



X Nf M«0 



XXM c; c>) M ro lO 



22 


00 ^v^ -^ 


TO 


as to 


2 


^iCTO 

Ota to 

•1— 


CJ 

1^ 




•n 
1^ 


X — b 


C-. 

to 


X 

to 
-1- 


o 


to 


1^ 


XX 


XXX 
XXX 

1^1^ r» 


§8 




§8 


X050 


g 


IN 

05 


1^ 


TOMtO 

XXX 


X 


X 
X 


X 


o 

IM 

X 


1 



•KOINa 
'AHJ, OXNI 

NOteeinav 
.10 3iva 



* * * » * 



> M £ 3 












a cj S S- 
2 *2 o q 



a ^ «-r a 
— o =^-m 



a; S 



^ ^3J3 ^ '^ch ° "as >5 ci 



ii "c 






a 5 a" S a' a 'c 

oj g 2 £ 2 °.3 

5 •5C'5o^'°'5 



. c . 
S«.2 

TJfcTD 






^ Q u eCH B u tn 






« a T- 



o a 2 
« o5 



'H M TO •<»' lO to 



-"O = 



1| 

3 ^ 

mZ 

XO> O '-CITO 



M fe" 






> a H OJ- 



-r lO to t^XO O — M TO 



Q 2 = = -^ -S -5 



M N O N 



TABLE OF STATES 



xlvii 



H.2 



K-M - . >< 

C8-- Sic OS 



e H 



Z [I. 



^"^ o 



Z Z 



z .z .«« 

ij ^ CJ 
°^ c3 « 03Z r 



H H 23 



■^ o fc - 

c Sf^ a 

C3 G fl cS 



cj w d '"' 



° o ^ 
l.b aZ g g ,r. 



03 03 



03 O 


CIS 


o 


^J= 




s~ 




X 


x>" 


H . 


f^ 


z J 


^-S" 


is 


^^ 




0) 

z 






o3f-i 



3 5^ =Ph 



<U Ml 

o 






o-E 



HH: 



rtJ 



Jj3 ojfH ajc-. 



05 M 0:(N —I 



>o 00 r-.oo(M 



05 00 >CC>OlU5 -f* !D OO 



-HO) 
(NO_ 

(NoT 



05 lO 05 



i^OiNco cnoj 



CO to •-' 



cot--" 



r-i t^ to lO CO 1-H CO t-H 



•M Ol ——I -< 



CO 00 C003-* 



lO *0 »0 CO to 



I^ M Oi OOOO O 00 
05 00 Oi^tr-'^Ji (N Tt* 



in 00 osoooq— ■ t^o 



(N ,-( -H 



«0- 00 o> 



OitO CO lO 



OCt^ IM .-H 



■^ a a 

_ 03 oj 






■H 










01 














cSE 












' 


s 




w<<; 






ffi 




tH 


















o3 












.2 < 


CI 

a 




c 

OS 

03 


0) 



0) ■ 
fl.O 

§22 
at; 



^mCQ O 






S w = -5 



hQ a. 



coO Z CO 



U5 


no 


lONCO 


■o 


03 


no 


-H-*-*0 


t^35 


e^ 


03 


03 


^^ 


l» 


t~ 


r^Oi 


X 


„ 


00 


to 


!OO3C0 


T)< 


tt> 


CO 


-Hioccn 


■*iO 




o 


o 




•* 


CD 




03 




ffl 




lOtOOO 


t~ 




00 


00 00 1^ 00 


OOOO 


X 


X 




X 




X 


XX 






<o 


r^ 


10U5O 


00 


o 


on 


O3.-<C0'J< 


t^eo 


o 


o 


03 


C-. 


o 


o 


cor- 


IN 


cq 






■*■*•* 


•* 






•O to CD CO 


cor- 


X 


X 


X 


cy: 


C3 


03 




»-H 








00 00 00 








OOOO 00 GC 


XX 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


X 


xo 


03 


CR 



^15 



cottiJS 



-g s 


Sj- .-g 


^J? 






3 03 


5^ -8 


*« 


o o 


\r o c ° 


II 


e aiO 


.M.i: - 


w . 




J= .>j3 


.j= 




w c « 


C m 


E § S 


'c « S'S 


03 c 


O St3 


rt-n O 03 


-O 03 








Pl4 .^ 


ccifetn 


mW 





'5 




8"-S 


0) 


c:_ 


_> 


■3-2 




c 


c^S 


fSEB 


^ 


Is 




X 


03 O 


W 


■^,9d 




a c 


S M.S 


-5-5 


Z ►S 




c c 



5 « 

s .s 

o -a 



U5 CO t-XOl 
(N N (NCN(N 



a '''>-45 



1-1 C^J CO"il>iOCO 

CO CO CO CO CO CO 



00 g 



Q Q 



^ 2 ^ So z 



xlviii 



TABLE OF THE PRESIDENTS 





5 


00 5 S 






2 


























u 


S • • • ¥ ■='3 • 
^ 5 " 3 5^ ?t25 = 




oi 


V 


^■^' ^ «ji ji 




i 


^.2 -^5 §€ 

3= ^>' pS 

= ■"' 2 s |c. 

4) - To * o 


- ^ 

5 T- 


ll 
II 


^* »w^.a**;as:n 






S>^.>? 


i', 1^ « v: M ^ 


«> ii.2; <;«:5H 


^;^; hJ^s;*^ ::/^:= 








^ 








::::>: 














■ • " 






7. 
U 

a 

i 




1 

iC 

3 


z 


: 
i. 


3 i 


:t-ai 

-ills 


S 

"3 

1^ 


re tJ tic 




si 


1^ 

<< 
a ^ 

;: 1 


« 

•a 
a „ 
1) a 

2 - 


- i: o i: i a 








Jiill;^ 


S'^ .5= >^ 


i< 




jSy h>S<5hw-?h 






IV'v 


^,.,v~ : ;«.,v^ 




^.~ 


>^.~ 


; : : ; ^v 


^ . . . 






<u . • 


: a : 


















i 25 - 




















g =^ J 


£ '■ 2 ' SS 


C3 


g fe 


a a a ^ c „ a 


a c n 

Ml 




5 


•- --e S? 


2 : . 2 • 2 2 


.- 








H 




■f5 ■£ » - 


5 Jju2liJ-2 2 


s. 


g a 


•£-^ - - -S - — 








r* 5 o i 


' o -^3 ~ 


-. r" . ^ . , 0/ D 














ISe^SIo: 


Qi aia a 


Oj;?fl;?:?a=l 


K 


« PS 


P-P^^-P;P p- 


Ki;,=; 






























" 






3 •<=" • 


«H 


00 




^°? : 


: : S 


g : : 




















1 




0000 ' 


■ • 1 






a. 




i 


X 


3oS 3 


^ 




00 


00 t-^ 

00 




■^3 : 't- g 




















oc == S — x m ■ 






1 




00 00 -M 00 


« 2 s -* § 9 L-. In 


d 
S 


s s- 

s s 


i^^ii? i 


1. Ci • 

-1^1 : 




a 






..i''^ .^Z' * •- •- 


-3 


1-t ,^ 


■^ = m .-'"' a ^ 


« j; . 






a aa a 

■2 5« iJ 


|PJl«|s 


a 




5 -ti '-'' *- E "2 c 


3 ., : 

as : 






O (u o 


o o a> o 






jl^ c 


Sa£.^Sil 


Oj ~ ' 






Safe 


S S = fe 






t*-. js 


*- ^ • 






HO H 


H HO H 


OOwOrHClOO 


-^ 


« H 


Co«5mCx .- ^— ■ 




.. 


ojo as 


«0 rH op l« 


d -1 c-i C5 o -* ~ 00 


1- 


O 1^ 


« >-i ■-= oo — -o ^ 






H 

a 












00 X xo> * a» c- 






5S 2 




ooxxooxoocooo 














1-1 00 t- '- 


(NMOiO-S-O^r-l 


m 


X IM 


C-l .^ O t- W t* CO CO I-- •— 


















s 


SS l^ 


I- I- C- t- 




S 














i : 


: :i : 




:::■£« 




















V 


• "i 




£ s 
















, 




3 
•Si ot 


■ • 2 a 


J^ 


a> _ ^ 2S .-= 




<o 






•¥■« .^ 


•^ • « 




H 




^ ^S ^ 







, . 








C O OS o 


o • 3 




H 


"3 g '2 


■=-B^ S 


>< 


•=i.2>; = S' 


.S 


= 2 






>-^i>. 


K- -"^ 






'Slin So 


3) "c OT - 


^ c 'So E 's s " 5 


s 


.2.2fefe=s .2 


&.2 s 








> >a H 


<y — .— 3 3 ^ • 1) 
550>H>j!z;!z;fiH 


M 


0) — 

H S 


^ j3 Oj qj i (U jz 


!^C>^ , 




9 


o 

c 


• 4) 


5 


'. oO 

; S : 
« _ 


. a • • • • ■ • 

2 o ■ : ■ ' ; : 
ti -iS ■ « ■ c 


13 


1 1 

— t- 


S ; / i 3 : > 

1'<5a^ ^ 






OS 


''3 00 

Si"** * 


rt O = -5 
00 Bl^ 1) 


a 

a 

Si 


■^ a: 

fe O! 

5 a) 


■a c!-3 






S-a 2 

® O J3 

O^ H 
















a E= ■« 

1-S >-s"5 < 


5 . - — S -- s cs s 
^ ? i-s ~ N *^ -^ «^ 


B 
< 


< ^ 


3 S ^ i 5 C ^^ 


g^^ 




1 rt c< « 


•* u5<e t- 


00O>©»-'C>M-*«5 


CO 


t- X 


2 (N S e-i c5 n e 


%^%, 





INDEX 



Abeicrombie, Gen. James, 97. 
Acadhi, granted to De Monts, 36. 

Great Britain acquires, 88. 

struggle for, 93, 95. 
Adams, John, in Revolutionary period, 120, 
122, 123. 

leader Federal party, 174. 

political writer, 365, 366. 

President, 175, 17G. 

V'iue President, 165. 
Adams, John Quinty, President, 201-203. 
Adams, Samuel, 122. 
Agricultural College, 365. 
Agriculture, 114, 115, 240, 355. 
Aguinaldo, Emilio, 350. 
Aix-la-Chapelle, treaty of, 89. 
Alabama, 300, 322. 
Alabama, 245, 232, 314. 
Alamo, the, 246. 
Alaska, 316, 356, 362, 371. 
Albany, 71, 93. 
Albemarle colony, 81, 83. 
Alexandria, seized, 255. 
Algiers, treaty with, 174 ; war with, 195. 
Algonquian Indians, 12. 
Alien and Sedition Lan.s, 175, 176. 
Allen, Ethan, 127, 128. 
Amendments to Constitution, xxiv-xxvii. 

Twelfth, 180. 

Thirteenth, 313, 314. 

Fourteenth, 315. 

Fifteenth, 319. 

Sixteenth, 375. 

Seventeenth, 376, 377. 
America, discovery of, 16, 24, 27 ; named, 27. 
American party, 229. 
"American System," 201. 
Ames, Fisher, 366. 
Amherst, Gen. Jeffery, 96, 97, 99. 
Anarchists, 329, 353. 
Anderson, Maj. Robert, 234, 235, 251. 
AndrC", Maj. John, 154-1.5G. 
Andros, Sir Edmund, 65, 70, 74. 
Annapolis, Port Royal called, 88. 
Antietam, battle of, 277. 
Anti-Federalists, 164. 
Antimasonic party, .206. 
Anti-renters. 212. 



Appomattox Court House, 307. 

Aquiday, island of, 70. 

Arizona, 350, 3T5. 

Arkansas, 245, 254, 313, 314. 

Arkansas Post, taken, 266. 

Arlington Heights, seized, 255. 

Army of the Potomac, 256, 257, 270-278, 280- 

286, 306. 
Arnold, Benedict, Fort Schuyler saved by, 
l.-i9. 

Quebec attacked by, 129. 

Saratoga victory, 141. 

Ticonderoga captured by, 128. 

treason of, 154-156. 

Virginia expedition, 158. 
Arthur, Chester A., President, 326. 

Vice President, 325. 
Articles of Confederation, 163. 
Ashhurton treaty, 213. 
Astor, John Jacob, 247. 
Astoria, Fort, 247. 
Astrolabe, 19. 

Atlanta, captured, 292, 293. 
Atlantic cable, laid, 316. 
Augusta, captured. 147. 
Austin, Mose-s, 246. 
Australian ballot system, 332. 
Averysboro, battle of, 304. 

Bacon, Nathaniel, 57. 
Baker, Col. E. D.. 257. 
Balboa, Vasco Nuiiez de, 30. 
Ballot reform, 332. 
Balls Bluff, l)attle of, 257. 
Baltimore, attacked, 193. 
insurgents in, 254, 255. 
Baltimore, Lord, 79, 80. 
Ba)icroft, George, 367. 
Bank, national, or Bank of United States, 171, 

174, 195, 206. 
Banks, national, 311, 339. 
Banks, State, 195. 206, 207, 311. 
Banks, Gen. Nathiiniel P.. 272, 276, 281, 290. 
Barbary pirates, 170, ISl, 195. 
Barton, Col. William, 141. 
" Battle above the clouds," 283. 
Baum, Colonel, 140. 
Beauregard, 259. 



xli 



1 



INDEX 



Beaure^iTinl, (!eii. I'. 0. T., at Hull Run, 25G. 

at Kort .Suiiitei', 251. 
. at Shiloli, 2C.2, '2«;(. 

opposes Butler. 'iiX'.. 
Bee, Ueii. baruard E., 'J.Vi. 
Beet sufrar factories, 355. 
Bell, John. 232. 
Beniis Heights, battle of, 140. 
Benningtoti, l)attle of, 140. 
Benton, Thomas H., 225. 
Bent(jnville, battle of, 304. 
Berkeley, Lord, 75. 
Berkeley, Sir William, 57, 113. 
Bermuda Hundred, 290. 
Bidwell, John, 333. 
Bienville, (Ydoron de, 89. 
Bienville. Jean Baptiste Lemoine do, .30. 
Big Bethel, expedition against, 255. 
Big Black River, hattle of, 280. 
Bill, h iw it becomes a law, 165, xvi. 
Biloxi, founded, 39. 
Black Hawk \\:\v. 207, 245. 
Blaine, .lames (}., 328. 
Bland Bill, 325. 
Blockade, of 1814, 193. 

of Havana, 314. 

Southern. 259, 2fiO, 299. 
Blockade runneis, 290-301. 
fSttnliomme Richard, 149, 150. 
Boone, Daniel, 244. 
Boonesboro, 244. 
Booth, John Wilkes, 309. 
Boi-der warfare in Kansas, 228. 
Boston, fire in, 320. 

founded, 62. 

in Revolutionary i)eriod, 122-124, 130. 
Boston Tea Party, 1 23. 
Boundary, Alaska, 3.'.2. 

Northeast, 213. 

Northwest, 221, 247, 322. 

of United States in 1783, 161, 360. 

Venezuelan, 338. 
Bowling (Jreen, 260, 262. 
Braddock, Gen. Edward, 94. 
Bradford, William, 61. 
Bradstreet, Col. John, 97. 
Brairg, Gen, Braxton, at Chattanooga. 284,290. 

at Chickaniauga, 2^1, 282. 

at ilurfreesboro, 265, 2(i6. 

Kentucky invaded by, 264. 
Brandywine, battle of, 137. 
Brazil, discovered. 27. 
Braeos .Santiago, battle of, 308. 
Breckinridge, John C, 215, 232. 
Breeds Hill, battle of, 126. 
British, .tee England. 
Brock, Gen. Isaac, 185. 
Drooklyn, 345. 
Brooks, Preston S., 228. 
Brown, Gen. Jacoli, 192. 
Brown, John, 231. 
Brown University, founded, 113. 



Bryan, Williatn J., 338, 353. 

Bryant, Wdliani L'nllen, 366. 

Buccaneers, 83. . 

Buchanan, Commodore Kranklin. 268. 

Buchanan, James, President, 230-235. 

Biickner, Gen. Simon B., 262, 33S. 

Buell, Gen. Don Carlos, 262-264. 

Bueiia Vista, battle of, 216, 217. 

Bull Run, battles of. 256, 276. 

Bunker -Hill, battle of, 126, 127. 

Burgoyne, Gen. John, 188-142. 

Burlingame, Anson, 316, 327. 

Burnside, Gen. Ambrose E., 267, 277, 278, 284. 

Burr, Aaron, 176, 180, 181. 

Butler, Gen. Benj:imin F., 255, 266, 267, 296. 

Butler, John, 146, 147. 

Cabinet, President's, 171, 328. 
Cable, Atlantic, 316. 
Cabot, John, 27, 28. 
Cal)ot, Sebastian, 28. 
Cabral, Pedro Alvarez, 28. 
Cabrillo, Juan Rodriguez, .S3. 
Cadillac, Antoine de la Mothe, 246. 
Caldwell, Gen. John C., 27H. 
Calhoini, John C, 201, 202, 205, 206. 
California, admitted, 223, 224, 246, 247. 

explored, 32, 3.3. 

gold in, 221, 222, 241, 247. 

petroleum wells in, 357. 
Calvert, Cecil, 79. 
Calvert, George, 79. 
Camden, battle of, 151. 
Canada, British possession of, 99. 

colonists attack, 87, 88. 

fisheries, 322. 

in Revolutionary War, 128, 129. 

in War of 1812, 185, 186, 195. 

rebellion in, 209. 
Canals, built, 202, 243. 
Cane sugar produced, 241. 
("aiming factories, 355. 
Canonicus, 61. 63. 
t;ape Breton Island, 34, 96. 
Cape Cod. 44. 
Cape of Good Hope, 21. 
Capital, Confederate, 255. 

national, 171. 
Capitr.l, the, 172. 
Car couplers, automatic, 354. 
Carnifex Ferry, battle of, 256. 
Carolina, Kort, 35. 36. 
Carolinas, 80-84, 103. 

see North and South Carolina. 
Caroline, 210. 
Carpet-baggers, 315. 
Carson, Kit, 218. 
Carteret, Sir George, 75. 
Carteret colony, 81, 83. 
Cartier, Jacques, 34, 35. 
Cass, Lewis, 222. 
Cavaliers, 56. 



INDEX 



Cayuga IiuUans, 12. 

Odar Creek, battle of, 299. 

Cedar Mnuiitaiii, battle of, 27C. 

C6I01011 <k' Bienville, 89. 

Cemetery Ridge, 286-288. 

Census, 362. 

Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia, 321, 

322. 
Cerro Gordo, battle of, 219. 
Cervera, Admiral, 344, 345. 
Chads Ford, battle of, 137. 
Chambersburg, burned, 298. 
Champion Hills, battle of. 280. 
Champlain, Samuel de, 36, 37. 
Chancellorsville, battle of, 284, 285. 
Chantilly, battle of, 276. 
Chapultepec, battle of, 220. 
Charles I., 56. 
Charles II., 56, 65, 73. 
Charleston, earthquake in, 329. 

founded, 81. 

free school in, 114. 

French and Spanish fleet attacks, 88. 

in Civil War, 235, 288, 304. 

in Revolutionary period. 123, 150, 100. 
Charlestowii, settled, 02. 

burned, 127. 
Charter, 45. 
Charter Oak, 70. 
Chattanooga, battle of, 282-284. 
Cherokee War, 95. 
Chesapeake, 182, 190. 
Chicago, anarchists in, 329. 

fire in, 319, 320. 

railroad strike in, 337. 

World's Columbian Exposition in, 333, 336. 
Chickamanga, battle of, 281, 282. 
Chickasaw Bluff, battle of, 206. 
Chickasaw Indians, 245. 
Chihuahua, con(iuered, 217. 
China, treaty with, 316, 317, 327. 

upiising against foreigners, 352. 
Chinese exclusion, 327, 333, 370. 
Chippewa, battle of, 192. 
Choctaw Indians, 245. 
Christian Commission, 302, 303. 
Churubusco, battle of, 219. 
Cities, giowth of, 242. 354, 362. 
Citizens, .\merican, 182, 315, 316. 

rights and duties of, 107. 
Civil Rights Bill, 314. 
Civil service reform, 323. 
Civil War, 249-308. 
Clarendon, Lord, 80. 
Clark, George Rogers, 148, 149. 
Clark, William, 178. 
Clay, Henry, career of, 214, 215. 

Compromise Bill, 206. 

Compromise of 1850, 223, 224. 

leader National Republicans, 201. 

Missouri Compromise supported by, 197. 
Clayborne's Rebellion, 79, 80. 



Clermont, 181. 

Cleveland, Grover, President, 328-330, 333- 

338. 
Clinton, De Witt, 202. 
('linton, George, 112, 180, 364. 
Clinton, Sir Henry, 130, 133, 144, 146, 147, 150, 

158. 
Cockburn, Admiral George, 191-193. 
Coinage, free, 325. 

gold and silver, 325. 
Cold Harbor, battle of, 296. 
Coligny. Count, 35. 
Colleges, 113, 364, 365. 
Colonial Assembly, 53, 54. 103, 119. 
Colonies, English, 46, 49-117. 

government of, 103, 104. 

industries in, 114-117. 

society in, 102-114. 

wars, intercolonial, 86-102. 
Colorado, 359, 322, 356. 
Columbia, S. C, captured, 304. 
Columbia College, 113, 364. 
Columbia River, explored, 247. 
Columbian E.xposition, 333, 336. 
Columbus, Christopher, 21-26. 
Columbus, Ky., 260, 262. 
Commerce, before Civil War, 239, 243. 

during War of 1812, 193, 195. 

Eastern, 19, 20. 

Embargo Act, 183. 

in colonial times, 114, IIG, 117. 

in 1900, 368, 359. 
Committees of safety, 126. 
Commonwealth, 56. 
Compass, mariner's, 19. 
Compromise. Missouri, 196, 197, 228, 234. 

of 1850, 224, 225, 234. 
Compromise tariff, 206. 
Concord, battle of, 124, 125. 
Condensing of milk, 350. 
Confederate cruisers, 300. 
Confederate privateer?, 259. 
Confederate States, 232, 249, 254, 255. 
Congress, 268. 
Congress, First Continental, 124. 

Second Continental, 128. 
Congress, Pan-American, 331. 
Congress, Stamp Act, 121. 
Congress, Uniteirstates, 164-167. 
Connecticut, cedes land to Congress, 161, 163. 

in colonial times, 63, 103, 110. 

settled, 67-70. 
Constantinople^ captured, 20. 
Constitution, 186, 187. 

Constitution of United States, 164-167, 366, 
xiv-xxvii. 

amended, 180, 313-315, 319. 

interpretation of, 174. 
Cunstitntiona, State, 166. 
Continental Congres.s, 124, 128. 
Continental currency, 153, 154. 
"Contraband," 255. 



lii 



INDEX 



Contreras. battle of, 219. 
C^unveiitiuii, tlr»t party national, 20C. 
Conway, tlen. Tlionia.s, Ha. 
Cook, t'ai)t. James, :W. 
Cooper, James Feniniore, 36C. 
Cooper, I'eter, 243. 
Copper mines, "241, ;i.'iO. 
Copyright, 333, xviii. 
Corinth, Imttk- of, 20,1. 

Confederates iu, 262, 263. 
Cornwallis, Lord, 134, 136, 1.50, 1.51, 1.56-169. 
Coronado, Francisco Vasquez de, 32, ."{3. 
Corporations, growth of, 312, 3.5"). 
Cortes, fleinando, 29, 32. 
Cotton, production of. 116, 240, 241, 358. 
Cotton factories, 242. 
Cotton t?in, 172, 196. 
Council for New England, .58, CO, CI. 
Courts, 166, 167. 
Cowpens, battle of, 1.56. 
Crawford, VVilliara H., 201. 
Creek Indians, 191, 245. 
Crockett, Uavid, 246. 
Croghan, Maj. George, 188. 
Cross Keys, battle of, 272. 
Crown Point, 93, 06, 97, 128, 138. 
Cuba, attempt to annex. 224. 

republic of, 341, 346, 3o2. 

Spanish settle in, 29. 
Currency, 1.53, 154, 171, 195. 206, 207, 311, 325, 

336, 338, 339. 
Curtis, Gen. .Samuel R., 262. 
Custer, Gen. George A., 320, 321. 
Customs and manners in colonial times, 10,5- 
112. 

Dade, Maj. Francis L., 207. 
Dakota, 279, 359. 
Dallas, battle of, 292. 
Dallas, Gt'Oige M., 216. 
Dartmouth College, founded, 113. 
Davis, Jefferson, at Chattanooga, 284. 

captured, 308. 

elected President of the Confederate .States, 
232,, 234. 

privateers commissioned by, 2.59. 

restored to liberty, 323. 
Davis, John, 41. 
Dearborn, Fort, 275. 
Dearborn, Gen. Henry, 187, 188. 
De Ayllon, Lucas Vasquez, 45. 
De Kalb, John, Baron, 151. 
De Leon, Ponce, 30. 
De .Monts, 36. 

De Soto, Ferdinand, 31. 244-246. 
Debt, imprisonment for. 234. 
Debt, national, after Civil War. .'iOH. 

after Kevolutionary War. 163, 164, 171. 

after .Spanish War, 346, 339, 308. 

after War of 1812, 194. 

in 1864, 303. 
Debts, State, 174, 315. 



Decatur, Stephen, 181, 195. 

Declaration of Independence, 131, 3«W. xi-xiii 

Declaration of Rights, 121. 

Delaware, 76, 7K. loa, 112. 

Delawaie, Loril, 53. 

Democrats, 201, 230, 328. 

Denver, settled, 3.59. 

D'Estainy, t'ount, 146, 147. 

Detroit, founded, 246. 

surrendered to British, 185. 
Dewey, George. 343. 

Diaz, Bariolomeu, Portuguese explorer, 21. 
Dickinson, John, 365. 
Dieskau, Baroji. !)6. 
Dinwiddle, Gen. Robert, 90. 
District of Columbia, 171, 224. 
D,)nelson, Fort. 260, 261. 
Dongan, Thomas, 74. 
Doniphan, Col. Alexander W., 217. 
Dorchester Heij:hts, fortified, 130. 
Dorr's Rebellion, 211. 
Douglas, Stephen A., 225, 232, 251. 
Draft, unpopularity of, 286. 
Drake, Sir Francis, 41, 43, 246. 
Dred Scott decision, 230, 2;i4. 
Dress, 10.5, 235-237. 
Dubuque, founded, 246. 
Dupont, Admiral, 288. 
Duquesne, Fort. 91. 93, 94. 
Dustin, Hannah, 86. 
Dutch, claims in North America, 46, 47, 67. 

settlements, 71-74. 

Early, Gen. Jubal A., 2.56, 298, 299. 
Education, 112-114. 238, 3«3-.367. 
Edward, Fort, 96. 138. 
Edwards. Jonathan, 365. 
El Caney, eaptnr.d, 344. 
Electoral Commission, Joint, 324. 
Electoral Count Act, 329. 
Electors, presidential, 164, 165, 180, xx. 
Electricity, new u.ses of. 354. 
Elizabeth, Queen, 43. 
Elizalieth City, captured, 26*;. 
Ehnira, battle at, 148. 
Emancipation Proclamation, 277, 279. 
Embargo Act, 183. 
Emerson, Ralph Waldo. 366. 
Emigration to America, 240, 354. 

Western, 239. 
Endicott, .lohn. 61. 
England. American possessions in 1607, 47. 

American possessions in 176;<, 99, 100. 

arbitration with, 322. 

boundary disputes with, see Boundary. 

colonies of, 49-117. 

explorations in America, 27, 28, 40-46. 

.Samoan Islands relinquished by, 348. 

Southern Confederacy acknowledged by ,269. 

Venezuelan boundary settled, 338. 

wars with, 119-164. 184-195. 

wars with France, 86-102, 174, 181-183. 



INDEX 



liii 



Epochs of American histdi-y, 10, 17. 

Ericsson, Capt. John, 269. 

Ericsson, Leif, 16. 

Erie, Fort, 192. 

Erie Canal, opened, 202. 

Espejo, Antonio de, 33. 

Eutaw Springs, battle of, 157. 

Evans, Oliver, 181. 

Ewell, Gen. R. S., 287. 

Express business, 243. 

Factories, 357. 

Fair Oiiks, battle of, 272, 273. 

Fairfield, plundered, 147. 

Farragut, David Glascoe, 266, 267, 301. 

PederalUt, 306. 

Federalists, 164, 174, 175, 195. 

Ferdinand, King, 11, 22. 

Ferguson, Gen. Patrick, 153. 

Fertilizers, use of, 355. 

Field, Cyrus W., 316. 

Filibusters, 224. 

Filipinos, 350, 351, 352. 

Fillmore, Millard, President, 223-225. 

Finances, after Revolutionary War, 171. 

crisis of 1837, 208, 2C'J. 

crisis of 1873, 320. 

crisis of 1893, 336. 

see Money. 
Fire engine, steam, 240. 
Fires, great, 319, 320. 
Fisher, Fort, 302. 
Fishers Hill, battle of, 298. 
Fisheiy award, 322. 
Fiske, John, 367. 
Fitch, John, 181. 
Five Forks, battle of, 306. 
Five Nations, gee Iroquois. 
Flag, national, 139, 196. 
Florida, region claimed by Spain, 30, 32. 

boundary fixed, 173. 

British possession, 99, 100, 161. 

ceded to United States, 200. 
Florida, State, 246, 232, 314. 

Indian war in, 207. 
Foote, Andrew H., 264. 
Forbes, Gen. John, 94. 
Force Bill, 337. 
Forrest, Gen. N. B., 290, 293. 
Fort Astoria, Crown Point, etc., see Astoria, 

Crown Point, etc. 
France, American possessions, 39, 40, 47, 99, 
100, 178. 

explorations in America, 34-40. 

independence of United States acknowl- 
edged by, 144. 

Louisiana purchased from, 178, 244. 

Mexico trouble, 315, .316. 

Southern Confederacy acknowledged by, 2.59. 

Statue of Liberty presented by, 330. 

troubles with United States, 170, 208, 316. 

wars with England, 86-102, 174, 181-183. 



Franklin, Benjamin, author, 365. 

career of, 144. 

Declaration of Independence, 131. 

Plan of Union, 93. 

postmaster general, 104. 
Franklin, State of, 244. 
Fraser, Gen. Simon, 141. 
Fi'aysers Farm, battle of, 275. 
Fredericksburg, battles of, 278, 284, 285. 
Free-soilers, 222, 223. 
Freedmen's Bureau, 314. 
Frc^-mont, John C, 218, 229, 272. 
French, Gen. William H., 278. 
French and Indian War, 89-102. 
Frenchtown, battle of, 188. 
Krenean, Philip, 365. 
Frobisher, Sir Martin, 41. 
Fi-olic, 187. 
Frontenac, Count, 87. 
Frontenac, Fort, 97. 

Fugitive Slave Law, 223, 224, 230, 231, 234. 
Fulton, Robert, 181. 

Gadsden purchase, 228. 

Gage, Gen. Thomas, 122-124, 127, 128, 130. 

Gaines Mill, battle of, 275. 

Galveston, captured, 286. 

flooded, 341. 
Gama, Vasco da, 27. 
Gardiners Island, 83. 
Garfield, James A.. President, 325, 326. 
Gates, Gen. Horatio, 140-142, 151. 
Genet, Edmond C, 174, 
George III., 120, 128. 
Georgia, cedes land to Congress, 161, 103. 

in colonial times, 103. 

readmitted, 314, 315. 

secedes, 232. 

settled, 84, 85. 

Sherman's march through, 291-294. 
Germantown, battle of, 137. 138. 
Gettysburg, battle of, 286-288. 
Ghent, treaty of, 194. 
Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 41, 42. 
Gillmore, Gen. Q. A., 288, 289, 303. 
Gold, coinage of, 325. 

in California, 221, 222, 241. 247. 

in Colorado and Alaska, 356. 

sole standard, 325, 339. 

value, relative to silver, 336. 
Golden Hind, 41. 
Goldsboro, 305. 
Gorges, Sir Ferdinando, 66. 
Gorman-Wilson Act, 337. 
Gosnold, Bartholomew, 44, 49. 
Government, colonial, 103, 104. 

of United States, 164-167. 

under Articles of Confederation, 163, 164. 
Governor, of colonies, 103, 119. 

of States, l(;6. ^ 

Grand Army of the Republic, 313. 
Grand Model, the, 82. 



liv 



INDEX 



Grant, IHysscB S., at Chattanooga, 282-284. 

at Forts Henry and Donelson, 261, 262. 

atSliiloli,262. 

career of, 317, 319. 

in battle of Wilderness, 295. 

Lee's surrendar to, 305-307. 

lieutenant general, 290, 295. 

President. 317-324. 

Richmond canipiii;^ns, 29ii-297, 30.5, 306. 

Vicksburgcanipaijins, 2(»6, 279, 280. 
Gray, Cupt. Robei t, 247. 
Great Britain, see England. 
Great Eastern, 31(;. 
Great Law, the, 77. 
Great Meadows, 91. 
Greeley, Horace, 32.3. 
Green Monntain Boys, 127. 
Greenback-Labor party, 326. 
Greenbacks, SOrt, 311. 
Greene, Gen. Nathanael, 156, 157. 
Greenland, 15, 16. 
Griswold, Fort, 158. 
Guam, 346, 3.50. 
Guerriire, 186, 187. 
Guilford Court House, battle of, 157. 

Hail Columbia, written, 176. 
Haiti, 25, 29, 83. 
Hale, Capt. Nathan, 134. 
Halifax, N. S., 96. 
Halleck, Gen. H. W., 263, 264. 
Hamilton, Alexander, 171, 174, 180, 366. 
Hampton, Gen. Wade (the elden, 187, 188. 
Hampton Roads, 268-270. 
Hancock, Winfleld S., 278, 296, 325, 326. 
Hans-'inn Rock, battle of. 151. 
Hanover Court Honse, 271, 272. 
Harlem Heights, battle of, 134. 
Harpers Ferry, 231, 254. 
Harrison, Benjamin. President, 330-333. 
Harrison, William Henry, 184, 187, 188, 190, 
208. 

President, 210. 
Hartford, 301. 
Hartford, convention at, 193, 194. 

founded, 67. 
Harvard College, 112. 
Hatteras Inlet, 2.')9. 
Havana, 29, 99, 344. 
Hawaiian Islands, 32, 337, 338, 347. 
Hawkins, Sir John, 40. 
Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 366. 
Hayes, Rutherford B., President, 324-326. 
Hayne, Robert Y., 205, 206. 
Hennepin, Father, 247. 
Henry, Fort, 260, 261. 
Henry, Patrick, 120, 122, 124, 365. 
Herkimer, Gen. Nicholas, 139. 
Hessians, 128, 134, 135. 
Hispaniola, 29. 
Hohart, Garret A., 338. 
Hobson, Richmond P., 344. 



Hochelaga, .'J4, 36. 

Molly Springs, captured, 266. 

Holmes, Dr. Oliver Wendell, 367. 

Homestead, Pa., riot at, 333. 

Homestead Act, 319. 

Hood, Gen. John B., 292, 293. 

HoDker, Gen. Joseph, 273, 277, 282-286. 

Honker, Thomas, 67. 

Ilopkinson, Francis, 365. 

Horse rake, invtiiteil, 240. 

Horseshoe Bend, battle of, 191. 

House of Representatives, 164, 165. 

Houston, Gen. .Sam, 214, 246. 

Howe, Gen. Wra., 127, 1.30, 133, 134, 137, 139. 

Hudson, C.-ii>t. Henry, 46, .51. 

Huffhes, Charles Evans, 879. 

Huguenots, 3.5, 81. 

Hull, Cai.t. Isaac, 187. 

Hull, Gen. William, 185. 

Hunter. Gen. David, 296, 298. 

Huron Indians, 36. 

Hutchinson. Mrs. Anne, 63, 70. 

Iberville, 39. 

Leland, 15. 

Idaho, 359, 360, 333. 

Illinoi.s, 245. 

luiniigratipn, 240, 354. 

Impeachment of Johnson, 315. 

Imi>ressment of sailors, 173, 182, 184. 

Imprisonment for debt, 237. 

Incas, 29. 

Indented servants, 103. 

Independence Hall, 131. 

Indiana, 24.5. 

Indians, 9-15. 

Black Hawk War, 207, 245. 

Cherokee War, 95. 

confederacy of Northwestern tribes, 184. 

driven from Carolina. 83. 

Florida War, 207, 208. 

in Civil War, 262. 

in French and Indian War, 94-96, 100. 

in King William's War, 86. 

in Mississipiii, 245. 

in Northwest Territory, 172, 173. 

in Revolutionary War, 138, 139, 146-148. 

in Virginia, 55, 56. 

in War of 1812, 188, 190, 191. 

King Philip's War, 64. 

Modoc War, 320. 

Pequot War, 68, 69 

Poutiiic's War, 100. 

Sioux wars, 279, 320, 321, 332. 
Industrial exhibitions. 321, 322, 333, 336, 353. 
Industries, 114-117, 238-243,311, 312, 363-359. 
Internal improvements, 201. 
Interstate Commerce Act, 330, 373. 
Inventions, 239, 240, 354, 357. 
Iowa, 246, 279. 
Iron mines, 241, 356. 
Ironclad oath, 315. 



INDEX 



Iv 



Iroquois Indians, 12, 36, 37, 83, 86, 87, 148. 

IiTigatioM, in Western States, 355. 

Irving, Washington, 366. 

Isabella, Queen, 21, 22. 

Island No. 10, 262, 264. 

Isthmian canal, 369. 

luka, battle of, 265. 

Jackson, battle of, 280. 

Jackson, Fort, 266. 

Jackson, Gen. Andiew, at New Orleans, 194. 

Democratic leader, 201. 

in Creek War, 191. 

President, 203-208. 
Jackson (Stonewall), Gen. T. J., at Antie- 
tiini, 277. 

at Bull Run, 2.56. 

at Chancellorsville, 285. 

at Hanover Court House, 273. 

at Harpers Ferry, 277. 

campaign against Pope, 276. 

death of, 285. 

Shenandoah campaign, 272. 
James I., 42, 44, 56. 
James II., 65, 74. 
Jamestown, 44, 45, 49, 50, 57. 
Japan, treaty witli, 229. 
Jasper, Sergeant William, IKO, 147. 
Jay, Chief-Justice John, 173, 366. 
Jefferson, Thomas, Declaration of Independ- 
ence written hy, 131. 

President, 176-183. 

Republican leader, 174. 

Secretary Department nf Foreign Affairs, 
171. 

Vice President, 175. 
Jerseys, 75. 
Jesuits, the, 37. 

Johnson, Andrew, President, 312-317. 
Johnson, Col. R. M., 190, 20S. 
Johnson, Gen. William, 96. 
Johnston, Gen. Albert Sidney. 262, 263. 
Johnston, Gen. Joseph E., at Averysboro and 
Bentonville, 304, 305. 

at Bull Run, 256. 

at Jackson, 280. 

before Atlanta, 290-292. ' 

career of, 290, 291. 

defends Richmond, 271, 273. 

surrender of, 308. 
Johnstown Flood, 331. 
Joint Electoral Commission, 324. 
Joliet, Louis, 38. 
Jones, Paul, 149. 
Judges, 166, 167. 
Jumonville, Coulon de, 91. 

Kamehameha, 337. 

Kansas, 247, 225-228, 231. 

Kansas- Nebr.nska Bill. 225, 228, 247. 

Kearny, Gen. Philip, 276. 

Kearny, Gen. Stephen W., 217, 218. 



Kearsarge, 30O. 

Kenesaw Mountain, battle of, 292. 
Kentucky, 244, 258, 264. 
Kentucky Resolutions, 183. 
Key, B'rancis S., 193. 
Kidd, William, 83. 
Kieft, Sir William, 72. 
Kilpatrick, Gen. Judson, 294. 
King George's War, 88, 89. 
King Pliilip's War, 64. 
King Williams War, 86, 87. 
Kings Mountain, battle of, 153. 
Know-nothing party, 229. 
Knox, Gen. Henry, 171. 
Kno.wille, 244, 284. 
Kosciusko, Gen. Thaddeus, 140. 

La Salle, Robert Cavelier de, 39, 91. 

Labor troubles, 237, 312, 325, 329, 332, 337, 355, 

370. 
Ladrones, 29, 346. 

Lafayette, Marquis de, 137, 158, 197, 236. 
Lake Cliamplain, battle of, 192. 
Lake Erie, battle of, 189. 
Lake George, battle of, 96. 
Laudonniere, Ren^ de, 35. 
Law, John, 244. 
Lawrence, burned, 281. 
Lawrence, Capt. James, 190, 191. 
Laws, how made, 165, 166, xvi. 

in colonial times, 103. 
Le Bosuf, Fort, 90. 
Lee, Gen. Charles, 134, 144, 146. 
Lee, Henry, "Light-horse Harry," 151, 157. 
Lee, Richard Henry, 131. 
Lee, Gen. Robert Edward, at Chancellors- 
ville, 284, 285. 

career of, 273. 

defends Richmond, 275, 295-297, 305, 306. 

Gettysburg campaign, 285-288. 

Maryland campaign, 276, 277. 

surrender of, 306, 307. 
Legislature, State, 166. 
Ljisler, Capt. Jacob, 74. 
Letter postage, 327. 
Lewis, Meriwether, 178. 
Lewis and Clark expedition, 178, 247, 359. 
Lexington, Mass., battle of, 124, 125. 
Lexington, ilo., captured, 258. 
Liberal constructionists, 174. 
Liberal Republicans, 323. 
Liberty Bell, 131. 
Lincoln, Abraham, assassinated, 309. 

career of, 249, 251. 

Emancipation Proclamation, 277, 279. 

President, 232, 249-309. 
Lincoln, Gen. Benjamin, 139, 147, 1.50, 159, 164. 
Line of demarcation, 28. 
Literature, 365-368. 
Livingston, Roliert R., 131. 
Local government, 167. 
Locke, John, 82. 



Ivi 



I^'l)Ex 



Lockout, 333. 

Locofocos, 201. 

LocoiDOtivi-s, steam, 24.3, S-SS. 

Loiuloii Comimiiy, 44, .52. 

" Loli^' House," the, 12. ' 

Long Islaml, battle of, 13.3. 

Loiigfell.nv, Henry W., .mn. 

Lonjrstreet, <iiMi. .Janius, 282, 2S4, 280, 287. 

Loiifjstiect, William, 181. 

LooUmit .Moimlain, battle of, 283. 

Liijiez, Naiciso, executed, 224. 

r,<ist .Mountain, battle of, 292. 

LoMilon, Kurt, 244. 

Loudoun, Earl of, general, 9.5. 

Loulsliur^', 89, 93,9.5, 96. 

Louisiana, region claimed by France, 30. 

ceded to Spaiii, 100, 178. 

ceded to United States, 176, 178, 196,244,360. 

north boundary determined, 200. 

slavery in, 228, 196, 197. 
Louisiana, St;ite, admitted, 244. 

cane sngai' pioduced in, 241. 

readmitted, 313, S14, 324, 325. 

secedes, 232. 

territory added to, 360. 
Lowell, Francis C, 242. 
Lowell, .lames Russell, 367. 
Loyalists, 124. 
Loyola, St. Ignatius, 37. 
Lumbering, 117, 241, 356. 
Lundys Lane, battle of, 192. 
Lyman, Oen. Pliineas, 96. ' 

Lyon, Gen. Nathaniel, 2.58. 

.McAllister, ^'ort, 286, 294. 
McClellan, Oen. George B., in Civil War, 256, 
257. 270-278. 

presidential nominee, 303. 
McCrea, .lane, 139. 
.McCulloch, Gen. Ben, 258. 
Macdonoiigh, Com. Thomas, 192. 
McDowell, Gen. Irvin, 256, 272. 
Mackinaw, 100. 
McKinley Act, 331. 

McKinley, William, President, 338-3.53. 
Macon, Fort, 268. 
Madison, James, 174, 183-196, 366. 

President, 183-196. 
Magellan, Fernando, 29. 
Magruder, Gen. John B., 271, 286. 
Maine, 342. 

Maine, 65-67, 197, 213. 245. 
Malolos, captured, 3.51. 
Malveiti Hill, battle of, 275. 
M iiiliattan Island, 71-7.3. 
Manila, 29, 99, 343, 351. 
.Manila Bay, Dewey's victory in, 343. 
.Manners and customs in colonial times, 105- 

112. 
Manson,Gen. Mahlon D., 264. 
Manufactures, 114, 116, 195, 242, 3.57, 358. 
Many, William L., 323. 



Marietta, founded, 244. 

Mariner's compass, 19. 

Marion, Gen. Francis, 151, 157. 

Marquette, Father Jacques, 38, 91. 

Marthas Vineyard, 44. 

Maryes Heights, 278. 

-Maryland, 78-80, 103, 114. 

Mason, James M., Confederate commissioner, 

259. 
Mason, Capt. John, 69. 
Mason, .rolin, 06. 
Mason and Dixon's Line, 78, 79. 
Massachusetts, cedes land to Cohgress, 161, 
163. 

in colonial times, 103. 

in Revolutionary period, 121-124. 

religious persecution in, 62, 63. 

settled, .57-67. 

Shays's Rebellion in, 164. 
Massachusetts Bay Colony, 61-63, 65. 
Massasoit, 61, 64. 
" Master," use of title, 236. 
Mather, Cotton, 66, 365. 
Maumee, battle of the, 172. l"/i. 
Maximilian, archduke of Austria, 316. 
MayjUnver, 58-60. 

Meade, Gen. George G., 286-28i, 295. 
Meagher, Gen. Thomas F., 278. 
Mechanicsville, battle of, 275. 
Meigs, Fort, 188. 
Memphis, captured, 264. 
Menendez, .32, 36. 
Merrimac, ironclad, 268-271. 
Merrimic, collier, 344, 345. 
Merritt, Gen. Wesley, 344. 
Mexico, French in, 315, 316. 

Spanish conquer, 29, 33. 

Texas revolts from, 246. 

treaties with, 220, 228. 

war with, 214-220. 
Miami, Fort, 100. 
Michigan, 246, 185, 188, 241, 320. 
Miles, Col. Dixon S., 277. 
Miles, Gen. Nelson A., 346. 
Mill Springs, battle of, 260, 261. 
Minims, Fort, 191. 
Mining, 114. 241, 356. 
Minnesota, 247, 279, 320. 
Mint, established, 171. 
Minuit, Peter, 72. 
Minutemen, 124. 

Missionary Ridge, battle of, 283, 284. 
Mississippi, 245, 232, 315. 
Mississippi Company, 244. 
Mississippi River, explored, 31, 39. 

in Civil War, 260-267, 279, 281. 

navigation of, 171, 173, 178. 
Missouri, 245, 196, 197, 241, 2.58. 
Missouri Compromise, 196, 197, 228. 
Mobile, 245, 301. 
Modoc Indians, 320. 
Mohawk Indians, 12. 



INDEX 



Ivii 



Money, after Civil War, 311, 312. 

after Revolutionary War, 164, 171. 

changes in curreiiey, 325. 

crisis of 1837, 208, 209. 

crisis of 1873, 320. 

crisis of 1893, 336. 

Gold Standard Act, 339. 

greenbacks, 308, 311, 325. ^ 

in colonial times, 117. 

paper, 153, 154. 105, 303, 308, 311, 325. 
Monitor, 268-270. 
Monmouth, battle of, 144, 146. 
Monoeacy River, battle of, 298. 
Monroe, Fort, 255, 260. 
Monroe, James, President, 196-200. 
Monroe Doctrine, 200. 
Montana, 359, 360, 356. 
Montcalm, Marquis de, 96-99. 
Monterey, captured, 216. 
Montezumas, 29. 

Montgomery, Confederate capital, 2.32. 
Montgomery, Gen. Richard, 128, 129. 
Monticello, 178. 
Montreal, 35, 99, 129. 
Morals in colonial times, 105, 106. 
Moravians, 85. 

Morgan, Gen. Daniel, 129, 139, 141, 1.">G. 
Morgan, Gen. John H., 281, 282. 
Mormons, 212. 213, 360. 
Morris, Robert, 134, 135, 154, 158, 161. 
Morristown, 154. 
Morss, Samuel F. B., 212. 
Morse, Sidney Edwards, 238. 
Motley, John L., 367. 
Moultrie, Fort, 130. 
Moultrie, Col. William, 130. 
Mounds, 10. 

Mount Vernon, 161, 169. 
Mowei', invented, 240. 
"Mr.," use of title, 106, 236. 
Murfreesboro, battle of, 265, 266. 
Muskhogean Indians, 12. 
Mutiny Act, 122. 

Napoleon I., 176, 178. 
Napoleon III., 315. 
Narragansett Indians, 64, 68, 69. 
Narvaez, Pdnfilo de, 30, 31. 
Nashville, battle of, 293. 
Nassau, Fort, 71. 
National banknotes, 311. 
National banks, 171, 174, 195, 311, 341. 
National convention (party), first, 206. 
National debt, see Debt, national. 
National Republicans, 201. 
National Road, 243. 
Naturalization, process of, xviii. 
Nauvoo, 212. 

Naval warfare, in Civil War, 259, 264, 266- 
270, 288-302. 

in Revolutionary War, 149, 150. 

in War of 1812, 186-191. 



Navigation Act, 56, 64, 119, 120. 

Navy, new, 327, 328. 

Nebraska, 359, 225. 

Necessity, Fort, 93. 

Negroes, enfrancliisemeiit of, 315, 319, 337. 

intimidation of, 323. 

soldiers in Civil War, 289, 290. 

see Slavery. 
Nelson, Governor Thomas, 158. 
Nevada, 309, 241. 
New Albion, 246. 
New Amsterdam, 71, 74. 
New Brunswick, 95, 213. 
New England, colonies settled, 49-85. 

in colonial times, 105-117. 

intercolonial wars, 86-102. 

United Ccjlonies of, 63. 
New France, 34, 40. 
New Hampshire, 66, 103. 

Vermont claimed by, 244. 
New Hampshire Grants, 127, 244. 
New Haven, 69, 63, 147. 
New Jersey, 75, 103. 

Washington's flight through, 134. 
New London, burned, 158. 
New Market, Ijattle of, 296. 
New Mexico, conquered, 218. 

explored, 33. 

State, 375. 

Territory, 224, 228. 
New Netherland, 46, 71 ; see New York. 
New Orleans, battle of, 194. 

capture of, in Civil War. 266, 267. 

ceded to Spain, 100. 

founded. 39, 244. 
New Sweden, 76. 
Xeio i'ork, 345. 
New York (city), British in, KiO. 

draft riot in, 286. 

fire in, 209. 

growth of, 363. 

national capital, 171. 

New Amsterdam becomes, 74. 
New York (State), anti-rent difficulties; 212. 

cedes land to Congress, 161, 163. 

in colonial times, 103, 109. 110. 

New Netherland becomes, 73. 

relinquishes claim on Vermont, 244. 

settled, 47, 71-74. 
Newbern, captured, 268. 
Newfoundland, discovered, 28. 

fisheries, 93, 322. 
Newport, attack on, 146. 
Newport, Capt. Christopher, 44, 51. 
Newspapers, 113, 367. 
Newtown, battle of, 148. 
Niagara, Fort, 93, 97. 
Niagara Falls, power from, 354. 
Norfolk, in Civil War, 268, 271. 
North Carolina, 81-84, 254, 314. 

cedes land to Congress, 161, 163, 244. 
North Dakota, 359, 36(». 



Iviii 



INDEX 



Northeast boundary, 213. 
Northmen, 15, 16. 
Northwest liouiulary, 221, 247. 
Northwest passage to India, 34, 41, 46. 
Northwest Territory, 161, 163. 

Indian wars in, 172, 173. 

scliools in, 364. 

slavery prohil)ited in, 163, 230. 
Norwalk, 147. 
Nuva Scotia, 95. 
Nueces River, 214. 
Nulliflcatioii, 205, 308. 

Oglethorpe, James, 84, 85, 88, 89. 

(Hiio, 244. 

Ohio Company, 89. 

Ohio River, discovered, 39. 

Okechobee, battle of, 208. 

Okhihonia, 332. .S73. 

Old IrnngideK, 186, 187. 

Ohistee, battle of, 303. 

(tmniluis Bill, 224. 

Oneida Indians, 12. 

Onondaira Indians, 12. 

Orchard Knob, 282. 283. 

Or.iinance of 1787, 163, 230, 364. 

Oregon, 345. 

Oregon, 247, 197, 221. 

boundary of, 221, 247, 322. 
Oriskany, battle of, 139. 
Orleans, Territory of, 244. 
Osceola, 207. 
Otis, (Jen. Elwell S., 351. 
Otis, .James, 122, 365. 
Ottawa Indians, 100. 

Pacific coast, explored, 41. 
Pacific Ocean, discovered, 29, 30. 
Pacific railroads, 317. 
Paine, Thomas, 133. 
I'akenhani, Gen. Edward M., 194. 
Palmer, .John M., 338. 
Palo Alto, battle of, 215. 
Panama Canal, 369. 
Pan-American Congress, 331. 
Paris, treaties of, 99, 161, 346. 
Parkiiian, Francis, 367. 
Patent, 43. 
Patents, 354, xviii. 
Patroon estates, 72, 212. 
Patterson, riin. Robert, 256. 
Pea Ridge, battle of, 262. 
Pembeiton, Gen. .John C, 280, 288. 
Peniiisnlar campaign. 270-272. 
Penn, William. 75-78. 
Pennsylvania, 76-78, 103, 110, 113. 

mines in, 241. 

petroleum wells in, 3.57. 
Pennsylvania, University of, 113. 
Pensacola, 260. 
Pensions, 331, 332. 
People's party, 333, 338. 



Peqnot VVar, 68. 

Perry, Matthew C, 229. 

Perry. Oliver H„ 188, 189. 

Perryville, battle of, 264, 265. 

Personal Liberty bills, 231. 

Peru, 29. 

Petersburg, attacked, 296, 297. 

captured, 306. 
Petroleum, 3.56, 3.57. 
Philadelphia, 181. 
Philadelphia, British in, 137, 144. 

Centennial E.\hibition at, 321, .322. 

Constitutional Convention at, 164. 

Continental Congress at, 124, 128. 

founded, 77. 

in c(doniaI times, 103, 111. 

national capital, 171. 
Philanthropic institutions, 367. 
Philip, Indian chief, 64. 
Philippine Island.s, American victory in, 343. 

ceded to United States, 346. 

discovered, 29. 

government of, 351, 3,52. 

war in, 350, 351. 
Pliips. Sir William, 87. 
Pickens, Gen. Andrew, 151. 
Pickens, Foit, 260. 
Piedmont, battle of, 296. 
Pierce, Franklin, President, 225-230. 
IMke, Gen. Z. .M., 188. 
Pilgrims, 58 CI. 
Pillow, Fort, 264, 290. 
Pinckney, Charles C. 176. 
Pinzon, Vicerite Yaf.ez, 26. 
Pirates, in Carolinas, 83. 

of Tripoli, 181, 195. 
Pitt, William, 95. 
PittsburL', labor troubles in, 325, 3.33. 

named, 95. 
Pittsburg Landing, or Shiloh, battle of, 262. 
Pizarro, Francisco, 29. 
Plains of Abtahani, 98. 
Plattsburg, battle of, 192. 
Pleasant Hill, battle of, 290. 
Plymouth Colony, 60, 61, 63, 65. 
Plymouth Company, 44. 
Plymouth Rock, 60. 
Pocahontas, 51-53. 
Poe, Edgar Allan, .Seo. 
Pcditical parties, 200, 201. 
Polk, James K., President, 214-222. 
Polygamy, 213, 360. 
Ponce de Leon, 30. 
Pontiac's War, 100. 

Poor Richard's Almanac (Franklin's), 144. 
Pope, Gen. John, 264. 276. 
Population of United States, 240, 3.53, 354, 

362, 363. 
Port Gibson, 280. 
Port Hudson, 281. 
Port Republic, 272. 
Port Royal, N. S., 36, 87, 88. 



INDEX 



lix 



Port Royal, S.C, 259, 268 
Porter, Comniodoie D. U., 30-. 
Porter, Gen. Fitz John, 272. 
Porto Rico, 29, 346, 3i8, '350 
Portuguese explorations, 20 21, 26-28. 
Post office, 104, 363. 
Postage, 327. 

Potato, cultivation of, ilo. 
Powhatan, 51, 55. 
Prescott, Gen. Richard. 141. 
Prescott, Col. William, 126. 
Prescott, William H.. 367. 

President and Litlle Belt, l^i- 

President of Vnited States, 165. 16b, xx. 

Presidential electors. 164, K'^^^"- 

Presidential succession, ^28. 3i9. 

Presidents message, 178. 

Presque Isle. 90. 

Prevost, Gen. Augustine, 147. 

Prevost, Gen. George. 192, 193. 

Price, Gen. Sterling. 258, 262, 265. 

Prideaux, Gen. .John, 97. 

Princeton, battle of, 136. 

Princeton College, 113. 

Prill'.', Capt. Martin. 44. 

Printing press, flist in clonies, 113. 

improvements in, 354. 
Proctor, Gen. Henry A., 188, 190. 
Prohibition party, 333 
Protective taritt. 201, 203. 
Providence, founded, 63, 70. i^.., .,o, 

Public land. Congress acquires, 161, lb.}, -o 

226. 228. 
gi-anted to Pacific railroads, 317. 
Homestead Act, 319. ^ , oai 

sections apportioned for schools, 364. 
Puebla, captured, 219. 

Pueblos, 10, 11. 

Pulaski, Count, 137, 147. 

PulasUi, Fort, 268. 

Puritans, 59, 62, 63. 

Putnam, Gen. Israel, 125,133,148. 

"Quaker guns." 270. 
Quakers, in Pennsylvania, 76, . i. 
. persecuted, 56, i'3. 
Quantrell, 281. 

Quartering Act (Mutiny Act), 122. 
Quebec, Americans attack. 129, 130. 
British attack. 88, 93, 94, 97-99. 
British province. 100. 
settled, 36. 
Queen Anne's War, 87, 88. _ 

Queenst«wn Heights, battle of, 186. 
Quincy, Josiah, Jr., 123. 

Rahl, Colonel, 135. 
Railroads, built, 202, 243. 358. 

Interstate Commerce Act, 330. 

Pacifif; 317. 

panic. 320. 

strikes, 325, 337. 



Raisin River. 188. 

Raleigh, Sir Walter, 42, 43. 

Randolph. Edmund, 171. 

Reaper, invented, 240. 

Reciprocity, 331. 

Reconcentrados, 342. 

Reconstruction, 313, 314, 324, 325. 

Red River expedition, 290. 

Redcoats, 124. 

Reed, Joseph, 142. 

Refrigeration of meat, 356. 

Religious tcdtration, 63. 71, 77, 79. 

Reno, Col. Marcus A.. 321. 

Representation, in Congress, 16*i ^^'• 

Republicans (Democratic), 174, 175. 2Ui. 

Republicans, new party, 229. 

Resaca, battle of, 291. 

Resaca dela Palma, battle of, 215. 

Reservations, Indian, 15, 311. 

Restoration, the, 56. 

Revere, Paul, 124. 

Revolutionary War, 119-164. 

Rhode Island, 70, 71, 103. 

Dorr's Rebellion in, 211. 
Ribaut, Jean, 35, 36, 81. 
Richmond, Ky., brittle of, 264. 
Richmond, Va., Confederate capital, 255. 

siege of, 296-298, ;;05, 306. 
Rittenbouse, Dr. David, 113. 
Roanoke Island, 43, 267, 268. 

Robertson, James, 244. 
Roc'hainbeau. Count, 159. 

Rosecrans, Gen. W. S.. i5b. -oo. -o". 
Ross, Gen. Robert, 193. 
Rotation in office 205, 323. 
Royal colonies, 103. 
Rubber, vulcanizing of, 240. 
Russia, Alaska purchased from, 316. 
Rutgers College, founded, 113. 
Ryswick, treaty of, 87. 

Sabine Crossroads, battle of, 290. 
Sacs, 207. 

St. Augustine, 32, 36, 88. 
St. John, J. P., 328. 

S^ Lawrence River, explore.l, 34, 36, 3J. 
St". Leger, Col. Barry, 139, 140. 
St. Louis, settled. 245. 
St. Paul, settled. 247. 
St. Philip, Fort, 266. 
Salem, settled. 62. 
witchcraft. 65, 66. 

Salt Lake City, 213. 

Samoan Islands, 348. 

Samoset, 61. 

Sampson, William T., 344, 345 

San Francisco, 221, 222, 246, 247, 372. 

San Jacinto, battle of, 24(.. 

gan Juan, founded, 30. 

San Juan Hill, battle of, 31o. 



Ix 



INDEX 



San Salvador, 24. 

Sandys, Sir Edwin, 54. 

Sanitary Coininission, 302, 303. 

Santa Anna, Gen. Antoniu Lopez de, 216, 217, 

246. 
Santa h'6, 3.S, 217. 
Santiago, battle of, 344, 346. 
Saratoga, battles of, 140, 141. 
Savages Station, battle of, 27.5. 
Savmmah, 181. 
Savannah, S.i, 147, 160, 2i)4. 
Saybrook, 68, 69. 
Sclieneetady massacre, 86. 
Scbley, Com. Winfleld S., .344, .345. 
Schofiild, Gen. John M., 305. 
Schools, 112-114, 238, 364. 
Schuyler, Kort,^ 139. 
Schuyler, Gen.'Philip, 138-140. 
Scott, Gen. Winfleld, at Chippewa, 192. 

in Mexican war, 217-220. 

presidential nomniee, 225. 

retires, 257. 
Secession, of Southern States, 232-234, 254, 308. 

ordinances of, repealeil, 313. 
Sedgwick, Gen. John, 284, 285, 295. 
Sedition Law, 175, 176. 
Seminole Indians, 207, 208. 
Semnies, Capt. R., 300, 301. 
Senate, 164, 165. 
Seneca Indians, 12. 
Separatists, 59. 
Serapix, 149, 1.50. 
Seven Days' Battles, 275. 
Seven Fines, or Fair Oaks, battle of, 272, 273. 
Seven Years' War, 91. 
Sewall, Arthur, ,338. 
Seward, William H., 225, .309, 316. 
Sewing machine, invented, 240. 
Seymour, Governor Horatio, 317. 
Seymour, Gen. Truman, 303. 
Shafter, Gen. William R., 344. 
Sliays's Rel)ellion, 164. 
Shenandoah valley, war in, 272, 298, 299. 
Sheridan, Gen. Philip, at Five Forks, 306. 

at Petersburg, 304. 

defeats Stuart, 296. 

Shenandoah campaign, 298, 299. 
Sherman, Roger. 131. 
Sherman, Gen. W. T., at Chattanooga, 282, 283. 

at Chickasaw Bluff, 266. 

Atlanta captured by, 291, 292. 

career of, 291. 

Kno.xville relieved by, 284. 

march through the Carolinas, 304, 30.5. 

march to the sea, 293, 294. 
Shields, Gen. James, 272. 
Shiloh, battle of, 262, 263. 
Shipbuilding, 117, 243, .3.59. 
Shirley, Gen. William. 97. 
Shoshoneaii Indians, 12. 
Sickles, Gen. Daniel F,.. 287. 
Sigel, Gen. Franz, 296. 



Silk, manufacture of, 358. 

production of, 116. 
Silver mines, 241, 3.5C. 
Silver money, 325, 336, 338. • 
Sioux Indians. 12, 279, 320, 321, 332. 
Slater, .Samuel, 242. 
Slave trade, 40, 164, 224, xix. 
Slavery, abolished, ;il3, 314. 

Comi)romise ot 1H50, 224, 225. 

Constitution attected l)y, 164. 

cott(jn industry atlects, 196. 

Dred Scott decision, 230. 

Emancipation Proclamation, 277, 279. 

Fugitive Slave Law, 224,230, 231, 234. 

in colonial times, 103, 111, 112, 116. 

introduction of, 55. 

Kansas-Nel)ia.ska Bill, 225, 226. 

Missouri Compromise, 196, 197. 

prohibited in Northwest Territory, 163. 

Wihnot Proviso, 221. 
Sleeping cars, 3.54. 
Slemmer, Lieut. A. J., 260. 
Slidell, John, 259. 
Sloat, Com. Jolni I)., 218. 
Smith, Gen. K. Kirliy, 256, 264, 265. 
Smith, Capt. John, 50-52, .57, 58. 
Smith, Joseph, 212. 
Snelliiig, Fort, 247. 
Social conditions, before Civil War, 235-238. 

in colonial days, 102-114. 
Soils, Juan Diaz de, 26. 
"Sons of Liberty," 121. 
Soo Canal, 358. 

South American lepublics, 200. 
South Carolina, 81-84. 

cedes land to Congress, 161, 163. 

Nulliflcatioii Oidiuancc passed, 205. 

readmitted. 314, 324, 32,5. 

secedes, 232. 
South Dakota, 3.59, 360. 
South Mountain, battle of, 277. 
Spain, claims in North America, 33, 34, 47. 

explorations, 24 26, 28-34. 

Florida boundary fixed, 173. 

Florida purchased from, 200, 246. 

Mississippi navigation secured to I'nited 
States, 173. 

war with, 341-346. 
"Spani.sh War," 88. 
Specie circular, 209. 
Specie payments, 209, 32.5. 
Spoil* system, 323, 205. 
Spottsylvania Court House, 295, 296. 
Squatter sovereignty, 225, 234. 
Stagecoaches, 104, 202. 
Stamp Act, 120 122. 
Standish, Miles, 61. ' 

Stanwix. Fort, 139. 
Star-Spfni(/li'ri Baiiiicr, written, 193. 
Stark, Gen. John, 140. 
"Starving Time," 52. 
State banks, 195, 206, 207, 311. 



INDEX 



Ixi 



Stato constitutions, 16G. 

State debts, 174, MS. 

State Rights, 18a, 205, 232, 308. 

Statue of Liberty. 329, 330. 

Steamboats, 181, 242, 3;')!!. 

Stedman, Fort, 306. 

Steel, use of, 358. 

Steele, Mrs. Elizabeth, 157. 

Steele, John, 67. 

Stephens, Ale.xander H., 206, 234. 

Stephenson, Fort, 188. 

Steuben, Baron von, 143. 

Stevens, Gen. Isaac I., 276. 

Stevens, John, 181. 

Stevenson, Adlai E., 353. 

Stirling, Gen. William Alexander, Lord, 137. 

Stockton, Com. Robert F., 218. 

Stonenian, Gen. George, 304. 

Stonington, bombarded, 193. 

Stony Point, captured, 148. 

Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 231. 

Strict constructionists, 174. 

Strilces, 237, 355, 370. 

at Homestead, 332. 

railroad. 325, 329, 337. 
Stuart, Gen. J. E. B., 273, 296. 
Stuyvesant, Peter, 72. 
Subtreasury Bill. 209. 
Sullivan, Gen. John, 137, 146, 148. 
Sumner, Senator Charles, 228. 
Sumner, Gen. Edwin V., 273. 
Sumptuary laws, 236. 
Sumter, Fort, 234, 251, 254, 288. 289. 
Sumter, Gen. Thomas, 151, 157. 
Supreme Court, 166, 167, xxi. 
Swansea, 64. 
Swedes, settlements of, 72, 76. 

Taft, William H., 3.51, 374. 

Taney, Roger B., 230. 

'I'ariff, "American System." 201, 202. 

after Civil War, 312. 

Clay compromise, 206. 

Gorman- Wilson Act, 337. 

McKinley Act, 331, 341. 

of 1897, 339. 
Tarleton, Sir Banastre, 150, 156. 
Taxation, for national debt, 171, 172. 

for Spanish War. 346. 

in colonies, 102, 103, 119-124. 
Taylor. Gen. Dick, 290. 

Taylor, Gen. Zachary, in Mexican war, 215, 
216. 

President, 222, 223. 

Seminole Indians defeated by, 208. 
Tea, tax on, 122, 123. 
Tecumseh, 184, 185, 188, 190, 191. 
Telegraph, 212, 316, 358. 
Telephone, 354, 358. 
Tennessee, 244, 2.54, 313, 314. 
Tenure of OfBce Act, 314. 
Terry, Gen. Alfred H., 302, 305, 320. 



Texas, admitted, 246, 222, 228. 

annexed, 214, 360. 

land purchased from, 224. 

petroleum wells in, 357. 

readmitted, 315. 

secedes, 232. 

Spain acquires, 200. 
Thames, battle of the, 190. 
Thomas, Gen. George 11., at Chickamauga, 
282. 

at Mill Springs, 261. 

at Murfreesboro, 265. 

at Nashville, 293. 
Thorwaldsen, Albert, 16. 
Ticonderoga, Fort, 93, 96, 128, 138. 
Tilden, Samuel J., 323. 
Tippecanoe, battle of, 184. 
Tobacco, cultivation of, 54, 115, 355. 

introduced into England, 43. 
Toleration, 63, 71, 77, 79. 
Tonty, Chevalier de, 245. 
Tories, 124. 
Town meeting, 104. 
Townsheud Acts, 122. 
Trade, see Commerce. 
Trades unions, 237, 312, 355. 
Transportation, 117, 202, 242, 358. 
Travel, 104, 105, 202, 363. 
Trent affair, 259. 
Trenton, battle of, 135, 136. 
Tripoli, 181, 195. 
Truck farining, 355. 
Trumbull, John, 365. 
Trusts. 355. 
Tunis, 195. 

Tuscarora Indians, 83. 
Tutuila, 347, 348, 350. 
Twiller, Wonter van, 72. 
Tyler, John, President, 210-214. 
Typesetting machines, 354. 
Typewriter, 354. 

Uncle Tom's Cabin, 231. 

" Underground Railroad," 231. 

Union party, 232. 

United Colonies of New England, 63. 

United States Bank, 174, 195, 206. 

United States notes, 308, 311. 

Utah, 360, 213, 224. 

Utrecht, treaty of, 95. 

Valley Forge, 143. 
Van Buren, Martin, 208-210, 222. 
Van Dorn, Gen. Earl, 262, 265, 266. 
Van Rensselaer, Gen. Stephen, 186. 
Van Twiller, Wouter, 72. 
Vancouver. Fort, 247. 
Vancouver Island, 322. 
Velasquez, Diego de, 29. 
Venango, Fort, 90. 
Venezuela, boundary of, 338. 
Vera Cruz, battle of, 218, 219. 



Ixii 



INDEX 



Vermont, 244. 

Verrazaii", (iiovaiini de, 34, 3C. 

VeBpucius, Americas, '26-'i8. 

Vestibule cars, 354. 

Vice President, election of, 1G5. 

Vicksburg, 266, 279-281. 

Vincennes, captured, 149. 

Virginia, 268. 

Virginia, 49-.57, 103. 

cedes land to Conscress, 161, 163. 

in Revohitionaiy perioil, 120, 124. 

named, 43. 

readmitted, 313, 315. 

secedes, 2.54. 
Virginia Resolutions, 18:i. 
Voters, qualitications of, 167, 316. 
Voting, ballot reform, 332. 
Voting machines, 354. 

Wagner, Fort, 289. 
Wahoo Swamp, 207. 
Wake Island, Mcquired, 348. 
Wallace, Gen. Lewis, 298. 
Walton, Col. Jolin H,, 278. 
War, Civil, 249-308. 

Indian, sfe Indians. 

intercidonial, 86-102. 

Mexican, 214-220. 

of 1812, 184-195, 

Revolutionary, 119-164, 

with .Spain, 341-340. 

with Tripoli, 181, 195. 
Ward, Gen. Artenias, 126. 
Warren, Gen. G. K., 287. 
Warren, Gen. .Joseph, 127. 
Washington (city), 171, 172, 193. 

in Civil War, 272, 276, t:98. 

treaty of, 322. 
Washington (State), 359, 360, 247. 
Washington, Fort, 134, 
Washington, Geori^e, at Boston, 130. 

at Germantown, 137. 

at Monmouth, 144, 146. 

at New York, 133. 

at Princeton, 130. 

at Trenton, 135. 

at Valley Forge, 143. 

at Yorktown, 158. 

commander in chief, 128, 176. 

in French and Indian War, 90-94. 

influence after the Revolution, 160, 161. 

President, 165, lf.9-175, 

president Constitutional Convention, i64. 

retreat through New .lersey, 134, 
Washington, Col. William A., 156, 
Wasp, 187. 
Watling Island, 24. 
Watson, Thomas E,, 338. 



Waxhaw Creek, battle of, 1.50, 

Wayne, (}en. Anthony, 137. 148, 172, 17.J, 

Weaver, James B., 320. 333. 

Webster, Daniel. -iTi, 224, iCKi, ii::. 

VVelister, Noah, 23«. 

Weldon Railroad, 29«, 

West India Company, 71. 

West Indies, 24, 25, 33, 344. 

West Point, 154. 

West Virginia, 309, 2.'i5. 

" Western Reserve," 103. 

Weyler, (ieneral, 342. 

Whig party, 201, 229. 

Whigs, in Revolutimi. 124. 

Whisky Rebellion. 172, 

White Plains, battle of, 134. 

Whitefleld, George, 85. 

Whitney, Eli, 172. 

W'hittier, .John G., 367. 

Wilderness, 285. 

battle of the, 294, 2: 5. 
Wilkinson, Gen, James, 188, 
William and Mary c„ii, ge, 113. 
William Henry, Fort, 'X,. 
Williams, Roger, settKs Piovidence,63, 68, 70, 
Williamsiiurg, battle <if. 271. 
Wilmington, Del., settk<l, 76, 
Wilmot 1'rovi.so, 210, 221, 234. 
Wilson, Gen, James II,, 304, 
Wilson, Woodrow, 377-379, 
Wilson (or Gorman- Wilson > .Vet, 337. 
Wilson's Creek, battle tit", 25S. 
Winchester, battle of, 298, 
Winchester, Gen, James, IBS. 
Windsor, settled, 67, 
Winslow, Capt, J, A.. 800, 301. 
Winthrop, .lohn, (12; the younger, 68, 
Wisconsin, 246, 320, 
Wolfe, (}en. ./anies, 96-99. 
Woman suffrage, 3T6. 
Wordun, Liclit, J<diM L„ 270, 
Worbl's Colnnil.iaii Exposition, 333, 336. 
Wounded Knee, battle of, 332. 
Wright, (;en. Horatio G,, 299. 
Wright, Silas, 225. 
Writs ot Assistance, 120. 
Wyoming, 350, .{(iO, 
Wyoming massacre, 146, 147. 

Yale College, founded, 112. 
Yeardley, Governor Georye, 53. 
York, burned, 188, 
York, Duke of, 73-75. 
Yorktown, sieges of, 158, 159, 271. 
Young, Brigham, 213. 

Zollicoffer, Gen. Felix K., 261. 
Zook, Col, Samuel K,, 278. 



